發布時間：2023-02-22 05:28:05
序言：寫作是分享個人見解和探索未知領域的橋梁，我們為您精選了8篇的教學技能論文樣本，期待這些樣本能夠為您提供豐富的參考和啟發，請盡情閱讀。
(一)備課:分項過關。
備課即在進行正式的課堂教學前對課堂教學進行整體設計，內容包括課標研讀、文本解讀、學情了解、目標設定、重點確立、難點挖掘、過程設計、方法選擇、課時安排、課件準備、板書設計等，最終落實到教案編寫。課堂如同戰場，教案如同作戰計劃，其重要性毋庸置疑，對課堂教學質量起著重要作用，其中既體現出師范生對教育教學理論的掌握情況，也體現出他們的專業綜合能力，難度較大，可以采取分項過關的方式。可以先過文本解讀關，然后練習目標設計，初步掌握目標確定的方法，能夠運用比較規范的語言表述教學目標。如:“學生(行為主體)在課堂討論中(行為情境)，至少能夠比較(行為動詞)兩種(行為標準)課文所用修辭手法(行為對象)的異同?！敝筮M行教學過程設計的訓練，在對程翔的“起領—教讀—自讀—總結”四步單元教學過程模式、鐘德贛的“中學語文反芻式單元教學法”以及潘鳳湘的“八步教讀法”、魏書生的“六步法”、錢夢龍的“導讀法”、余映潮的“板塊式”等單篇課文教學過程設計及依據了解的基礎上模仿總體教學過程設計，再根據課堂教學過程所需技能分項訓練，如導入、提問、講解、結課、板書等。這樣一步一步逐項訓練，最后對整個教學設計進行修正，相對會減輕備課的難度，而且比較扎實。
(二)說課:開口論辯。
說課是既要說出課上什么、如何上，又要說出為何要這樣上，既考察教師的實踐能力，又考察其理論素養，是進行教學研究、培訓師資的重要活動形式，可放在課前，也可放在課后。課前說課，主要說為何這樣設計，可起到對課堂教學矯正的作用，增強上課的理性;課后說課，主要說為何這樣設計及課堂教學實效，可起到檢驗教學設計的作用，反思意味濃厚。說課能力提升的關鍵在三個方面:一是提升理論素養，撰寫好說課稿。說課稿一般要涉及五個方面:說教材、說學情、說教學目標及重難點、說教法學法、說教學過程，其核心應是說出教師本人對教材的獨特理解及教學設計的思想、思路，力求達到既具備科學性，又具備理論性、可操作性。二是多開口練習。稿子過關后讀熟，直至脫稿，把握好說課的時間，提高說課的邏輯性與藝術性，力求語言表達條理清楚，層次分明，字正腔圓，悅耳動聽。三是在論辯中提升說課水平。一般訓練把說課僅僅作為了一種形式，師范生說課完畢后輔導教師點評一下說課就結束，忽視了說課的根本目的是為了與同行及專家交流。所以說課訓練除了讓師范生準備好說課稿，自己多開口練習外，應有重要的一環，即提問與答辯。教師與其他師范生在說課結束后可模仿專家與同行，針對教材內容、目標設置、教學思路、方法選擇、重難點突破等提問，使說課者在與專家及同行的對話交流中進一步明晰自己的教學設計，提升說課水平。
(三)講課:自講合作。
自講即按照教案設計，自己在空教室或其他地方反復演練，進一步熟悉教學內容、教學流程、教學方法等，發現疏漏，及時修改。這一步是非常重要的，它有利于培養師范生的自主學習意識，也為下一步保障小組合作學習的質量打下基礎。試講中的合作學習主要體現為小組活動及班內交流，在個人講熟之后把全班師范生編為小組，在小組內試講，進一步發現問題，使教案更加科學，教學更加有效。還可結合年輕人精力旺盛、爭勝好強的特點，在組內展開比賽，以賽促講。小組試講之后，組內選拔代表進行班內交流。講課要求抓住重點，突出重點，讓學生掌握重點，透徹理解重點，能夠結合運用，轉化為能力最好。因為師范生的試講沒有真實的教學對象，缺乏真實的體驗，講課易出現兩個問題:其一是忽視學生的學，以個人講解為主。講課中要培養師范生一種教學生學，引導學生喜愛、理解、欣賞、運用祖國語言文字的意識，而不是當知識的“掮客”。其二是貪多，一節課要解決的問題很多，結果每個問題都是走馬觀花，要引導師范生學會一節課著重解決一兩個問題。這些都要在師范生自講與合作學習的反復練習中加以解決。
(四)評課:先寫后評。
評課實際屬于教學研究范疇，評課訓練不僅使師范生具備評課能力，更重要的是起到如何導引教學的作用。從以往師范生的評課來看，存在的最大問題是過多關注外在的東西，如教師的儀容儀表、語言表達等，對教學內容是否適切、教學方法是否靈活、課堂結構安排是否合理、學生接受是否難易等涉及較少。還有的要么全評優點，看不到問題;要么全評缺點，一概否定，抹殺授課者的創造，嚴重打擊授課者的自信。作為師范生的能力弱項，不妨先練習寫較詳細的評課稿，慢慢明確評課的原則、內容、方法后，再寫較簡略的評課稿，直至最后列出要點評課甚至打好腹稿脫稿評課。評課稿主要包括評課的內容與思路。評課內容包括教學目標、教學內容、教學方法、教學程序、板書設計、教學效果、教師素質等方面。評課思路可以有兩個:一是按照上述內容逐項點評;二是抓住一項或幾項內容點評，先說優點，再提出問題，最后提出建議。評課稿必須有理有據，不能只有論點。評課可培養師范生的反思意識，自我反思有利于師范生專業發展，因此在他評前應該先自評，進行自我剖析。
二、專業核心能力提升策略
培養學生聽說讀寫能力是語文教學的基本任務，語文教學能力的高低，除了與師范生掌握的教育教學理論、學科教學理論高度相關外，其自身具備的聽說讀寫能力也是非常重要的影響因素。聽說讀寫能力本身也是漢語言文學專業師范生區別于其他專業師范生的重要標志，是進行教學的基礎、底氣、看家本領，可稱為專業核心能力。聽說讀寫能力的訓練始于小學一年級，直至大學四年級，本文著重探討在語文課程與教學論專業課學習中如何有意識地培養師范生聽說讀寫的能力。
(一)聽:課例講座。
教師要對學生的答問做出反應，具備良好聽力是教師必備的素質之一，對語文教師來說更是如此，因為對話教學是語文教學的重要原則，而對話的基礎是理解與尊重，其表現則是傾聽能力?，F在的大學生，個性都比較強，善于自我表現，對別人缺乏應有的尊重與理解，可借助師范生課堂試講、見習、聽講座等機會，對其進行聽的能力的培養。一是善于傾聽，在別人講課解說時盡量不交頭接耳、嘀嘀咕咕地說，有問題記下來，可在小組互動、師生互動環節進行表達。二是聽課、聽講座要專心聽，記錄要點。三是邊聽邊思，記錄自己的感想、問題。通過一段時間的訓練，師范生聽的能力會有所提高。
(二)說:備課講課。
說課就是說備課，是面對同行專家介紹說明自己的教學設計及其設計依據的教學研究活動，是培訓師范生的重要方式，也是訓練漢語言文學專業師范生說的能力的良機。說課前要求其撰寫好說課稿，自己課下反復練習，直至脫稿，然后小組內說課，借助微格訓練，調出錄像反復查看比對，查漏補缺，提升說課的邏輯性、藝術性，從而提升說的能力。講課中的講授技能訓練、課堂引導及課例觀看后的反思評課，也是提升說話能力的機會，可組織師范生辯論研討，一方面增加了開口說話的機會，另一方面加深了對教學的理解。比如針對案例發表自己觀點的即席講演，考察了師范生多方面的知識儲備，特別是訓練了師范生敏捷的思維能力、快速的語言表達能力和靈活的應變能力。
(三)讀:教育名著。
讀書，應該是語文教師的一種生活狀態，語文課程與教學論中閱讀能力培養的主要憑借是教材及語文教育名著。漢語言文學專業師范生文學名著讀的較多，語文教育名著閱讀量較少，對語文教材的閱讀也比較忽視，不明白語文教材閱讀與一般閱讀不同，一是不管喜歡與否都應細讀，二是閱讀中不僅有教師與文本的對話，還有教師與作者、教師與編者、教師與學生的對話，從而把語文教材閱讀簡單化。針對上述情況，可在課程開設之初，向學生開列語文教育名著書單，推薦語文教育名著，如《葉圣陶語文教育論集》、《導讀的藝術》、《中國著名特級教師教育思想錄•中學語文卷》等，以及語文教育報刊雜志《中學語文教學》、《語文建設》、《中學語文教學參考》、《中國教育報》、《語文報》等，要求做好筆記，在合適的時機以讀書報告會的形式進行交流。語文教材的閱讀可以結合課堂教學，形式多樣，如朗讀、誦讀、細讀、讀書報告會等。
(四)寫:教學論文。
研究，也是教師的生存狀態，是未來語文教師不可或缺的能力要素。教師需要對教育教學進行創新，如果認為其只是技能的疊加，則教學活動就會很快陷入滿足，繼而無趣，行而不遠，體驗不到職業的幸福感、愉悅感。目前，語文教育科研的訓練欠缺，畢業后能夠寫出教研論文者寥寥。只有認真從事教學研究的教師，才能夠更深刻地理解教育教學的規律，更好地運用技能傳授知識。要學會在調查中了解，在實踐中反思，在研討中提升教學科研能力。要結合教材分析、教案設計、說課稿撰寫、評課稿撰寫、讀書筆記、調查等常規訓練活動，引導學生發現問題、思考問題、解決問題，進而把探討的結果用文字表達出來，并在寫作中創新。寫作是思維的利器，是教師專業化的必由之路，教師只有寫，才會寫，如果能夠把其中優秀的文章修改發表，對師范生會產生更大的激勵作用:一方面在寫作中提高了寫作能力，保留了精神作品;另一方面也體驗到了問題解決的喜悅，增加了對原有問題的認知與解決能力。
三、結語
（一）明確教學目標
2010年之前，中等幼兒師范學校的專業名稱不是學前教育專業，而是幼兒教育專業,這一改變意味著教育部門對于幼兒教育的重視及其思維變化。幼兒文學作為專業課程，其目的在于培養幼兒文學的教育人才，其應該具備扎實的文化知識和文化底蘊,以便向幼兒傳遞文化思想，具備深厚的幼兒文學素養,以便向幼兒傳達文學知識，具備執著的探究精神,以便更加清晰有效的教育幼兒。為了達到這樣的目標，幼兒文學教學應努力陶冶學生的情操,提升學生的文學感悟能力，使學生能夠充分掌握幼兒文學的基本原理,掌握幼兒文學的發展狀況,學會從現實的文學作品和教學中發現新的研究的課題。
（二）認識學生的主體地位與其他學科及課程的教學模式相同
幼兒文學的課堂里,教師仍是以教為主，忽略了學生的學習主體地位，一味地以滿堂的言語進行授課，然而這與現代教育理論是相悖的,教師是教的主體，而學生是學的中心，教師教的目的在于學生的學，因此必須轉變思維，認識并理解學生主體地位的重要性，提高學生的學習興趣，發揮其主觀能動性。教師應該將重心放在學生的學習欲望與興趣的激發、學生學習能力與創造能力的提高上面來,協助學生進行自主化學習模式。此外,教師在充分認識到學生主體地位的同時，也要認識到學生學習的目的，形成教師以學生為中心，而學生以未來實用性為指導的學習模式，教導學生認識到幼兒文學教育的最終目的在于組織以幼兒為主體的文學活動,并進行適當的教學與學習。
（三）突出語言訓練
強化口語技能口語專業水平對于幼兒文學的學習也是十分重要與關鍵的，因為幼兒文學需要在對文學作品進行鑒賞的同時,還要進行聽說表演與誦讀、故事的表演，而學生的口語專業技能在此就發揮了強大的作用,口語能力越好,其幼兒文學這門課程的學習效果也就會越好。因此,為適應幼兒園實踐的這個需要,在對學生進行幼兒文學這門課程的教學時，必須加強學生對于語言能力的訓練,強化學生的口語技能水平。在幼兒文學教學的兒歌單元,可以讓學生分別進行兒歌的表演,讓其自主自由地進行編組，選取曲目，并進行一定的串聯和主題編排,進行有準備的表演,既能提高他們對于兒歌的樂趣領會,也能提高他們的學習興趣，又能加強口語技能的鍛煉與學習。
（四）模糊學科界線
滲透幼教內容幼兒文學和語言教學法在幼師專業的教學當中是兩個不同的課程，兩者之間完全獨立設置，毫無交叉。因此，我們需要將幼兒文學與語言教學法之間的限制打破，模糊他們的科學界線,使幼兒文學與語言教學法更加緊密配合,提升教學效果。例如，在幼兒文學教學里,兒歌和幼兒詩分別是兩種不同的文體,在教材設置上面也是分開為不同的章節，并進行詳細介紹、學習和創作，而在語言教學法里,兒歌和幼兒詩則統稱為幼兒詩歌，是一體化的。因此,我們可以看到并得出這樣一個結論，幼兒文學教學的重點在于學習并了解文體特點,訓練寫作技能,強化作品鑒賞能力，而語言教學法的教學重點則是培養學生利用幼兒文學作品進行教學活動的能力，掌握整個組織活動的流程，從作品選材到過程設計再到案例分析，因此二者是天生的合作者，老師應充分發揮這種合作的作用。
二、結語
中職會計教學存在的多種問題，使中職會計教學得不到很好的發展，而會計技能大賽為會計教學的改革指明了方向。職業學校的老師要以技能大賽為風向標，切實加強會計教學改革，真正做到以賽促學，以賽促教，以賽促改，推進中職會計教學改革。
1.1以技能大賽為導向，創建靈活的教學模式技能大賽的內容和主題主要體現了社會會計崗位對會計專業學生職業能力的要求。中職學校應該根據技能大賽的主題和內容，改革以往死板的教學模式。教師在教學過程中應以工作過程為導向，以真實的工作任務為載體，創設學習情境，分解工作任務，建立多個學習小組，充分利用多樣化教學資源，采用多種教學方法，使課堂教學具有較高的可理解性和可操作性，這樣既能激發學生的學習興趣，喚醒學生的參與意識，又能達到理論和實踐相結合的目的。這就對教師提出了更高的要求，不僅要有豐富的理論知識，又要有豐富的實踐經驗以及熟練的專業操作技能，有利于教師整體素質的提高。
1.2建立激勵機制，提高教師整體水平經濟越發展，會計越重要。會計屬于應用型學科，必須要學以致用。這就要求要以職業能力培養為主線的教學改革，必須加強“雙師型”教師的水平，而不能使“雙師型”教師流于形式。會計也是一門發展很快的學科，稅法制度、會計法規都會不斷在變化，經濟業務處理也會有些變化，這就要求老師要經常學習，不斷更新自己的會計知識。同時，要想在學校保留“雙師型”教師，必須要引入競爭機制。這些教師除了日常教學，還要有大量的實踐投入到知識更新中，有些還擔負技能大賽的任務，壓力之大，難以想象。這就要求學校要給這些教師較高的肯定和待遇，以平衡其消耗投入。除此之外，學校可以經常請一些會計專業機構的高級會計人員到學校開講座，不僅可以讓學生了解到最前沿的會計訊息，也可以使校內教師和高級會計人員進行交流學習，提高自己的專業水平。
1.3完善實訓設施建設，加強實踐教學要想進行好的會計實踐教學，除了才軟件上提高，還要完善實訓設施的建設。會計技能大賽是在仿真財務、會計、稅務、銀行、供應商等環境中進行的，，那么學校的實踐教學建設可以以技能大賽為進行建設。學校可以和技能大賽的設備、軟件供應商合作，創建接近大賽和企業實際的實訓實驗室。按照會計的不同流程創立不同功能的實驗室，采用企業真實案例，讓學生真賬真做，讓學生在仿真的會計環境中熟悉會計的不同崗位的職責和工作內容，使學生的理論知識通過實踐得到強化。同時，在會計課程設置上采用日常實訓和專項實訓相結合的方法。技能大賽對操作能力有較高的要求，因此訓練方式相當重要。電算化軟件在日常上課時可按照模塊分步練習，點鈔需要在平時強化不同方法的訓練，數字錄入需要強化指法的練習。基本方法掌握后，就需要強化練習，不僅要求準確度，更要求熟練度。
2結語
從教育學專業的角度來看，教學有效性的本質是一種價值屬性。具體來說，教學有效性蘊含三層含義：一是教學效果。它關注學生對知識的掌握情況和學習行為的好壞；二是教學效率。它是指通過某種方法和手段，大大縮短學習者的學習時間，從而增加單位時間內目標的達成數量；三是教學效益。它是指教學目標與特定的教育需求是否貼合以及對貼合程度的評價。在生物教學中恰當地運用強化技能，既能發揮教師的主導作用，又能調動學生學習的積極性。具體而言，它主要有以下幾個功能：第一，吸引學生的注意力，使學生能把注意力長期集中到教學活動中，減少和防止教學外因素刺激形成的干擾，延長學生注意力的持續時間，使教師更好地把握課堂教學。第二，激發學生的學習動機，影響學生的學習態度，使學生明確學習目的。強化技能可以適當地為學生提供行為反饋信息，讓學生重新評估自己，在反省中進一步鞏固和發展好的學習行為。同樣，對于缺點和不足的恰當評價反饋，能使學生明確差距，減少不良行為發生的概率。第三，加強學生情感情緒體驗，促進教與學之間情感情緒的雙向交流。在教學過程中，不同的強化技能會引起學生不同的情感情緒體驗。一般而言，肯定性評價能引起學生愉悅的情緒體驗，否定性評價能引起學生不愉快、緊張的情緒體驗。教師人格的影響滲透，能在具體的強化中傳遞給學生，他們真摯的愛、頑強的意志、良好的期待、嚴謹的治學方式都為學生樹立了典范，增加了強化的影響力和可信度，促進學生積極主動地參與活動，從而有效提高教學效率。第四，鞏固學生的正確行為，有助于學生形成自我強化，從心理上獲得滿足感，也有助于學生了解行為評價體系，并把它內化成自己的評價體系，這是自我教育的一個重要組成部分。只有這樣，學生才能進行自我激勵，不斷自省反思，形成真正的內部動力。
二、靈活運用強化技能，提高課堂教學有效性
強化是課堂教學中一個重要的研究變量，教師的一個目光、一個微笑，一個手勢、一句話，都會增強或減弱學生的學習動機，也可以成為強化學習的動力。在生物課堂教學中，筆者總結出強化的五種類型。
1.語言強化
語言強化是指教師用的語言評論，如表揚、鼓勵、批評指正等方式，對學生的反應或行為做出判斷，或表明態度，或引導學生互相表揚、鼓勵和批評指正，使學生向所期望的方向發展傾向更加明顯。語言強化分為口頭語言強化和書面語言強化?？陬^語言強化經常用于課堂教學，是對適時、正確的學生學習行為和結果進行口頭表揚、肯定、鼓勵或批評指正。如“回答得很好”“想想還有沒有需要改進的”等，它既可以是肯定性評價，也可以是否定性評價；書面語言強化，是指教師在學生的作業練習或試卷上寫下的留言性評價，能對學生的學習行為產生強化作用，使學生感受到教師對自己的注意和關照。
2.標志強化
標志強化就是符號強化。在教學過程中，教師會使用一些醒目的特殊符號，如用彩色粉筆作波浪線標注、寫副板書，或使用三角形、五角星等符號來突出教學內容，強化教學活動。
3.動作強化
動作強化也稱體態語言強化，是指教師運用身體動作、表情和姿勢等，對學生表示教師的態度和情感的教學行為，手勢、目視、點頭或搖頭等都是常用的動作強化。教師在生物課堂教學中運用一些體態語言，有助于學生理解所學的知識，對某些事物或結構形成空間立體感。如在解剖玉米種子時，學生不太理解縱切和橫切的概念。這時，教師除了借助掛圖或課件等教具之外，還可以借用一個模型，模擬玉米被切下去時的動作，來區分縱切和橫切，這樣就能給學生一個動作強化。
4.活動強化
學生感興趣的學習活動本身就是一種強化因子，情境教學法就屬于這一類型。如在教學軟體動物時，教師可由“鷸蚌相爭，漁翁得利”這一典故導入，配上動漫的形式，就能極大地吸引學生的注意力，調動學生的學習熱情。然后，教師再因勢利導，提出“河蚌靠什么結構能緊緊夾住鳥的嘴”“蚌殼長時間關閉，會不會憋死”等問題，學生在興趣的引導下，會積極地思考，展開熱烈討論。整個教學過程既生動活潑，又富有情趣，令學生樂在其中。
5.變化方式
強化變化方式強化是教師通過變換信息、反復刺激的方式，強化學生對某個問題的反應，以實現預期的教學目的。如在教學《輸送血液的泵——心臟》時，除了指導學生讀圖之外，教師還可以引導學生觀察心臟的結構圖，讓學生拆卸組裝心臟的模型，最后再觀看有關心臟3D結構的視頻，以多維方式循序漸進地強化學生對新知識點的理解。
三、實施強化技能應把握的原則
在生物教學中，教師要幫助學生形成正確的行為，激發學生的學習熱情。不適當地強化，會對課堂教學產生負面影響。因此，教師在教學中運用強化技能，還應該把握好一些原則。
1.一致性原則
運用強化的目的，在于把學生的注意力吸引到學習中來，提高學生參與教學活動的積極性。在教學中，教師對學生的強化內容、性質、標準要保持一致，避免前后矛盾。如針對同一內容、同一行為，教師不能今天批評，明天表揚，這會讓學生感到無所適從。
2.客觀性原則
它是指在教學中，強化必須科學、合理、客觀、公正，不憑教師的主觀意愿和偏見來評價學生，這樣才能使學生心悅誠服。情感真摯、熱教愛生是執行客觀性原則的要素，教師熱情、誠懇的態度會對學生施以積極有效的影響。此外，學生是運動發展中的人，要與時俱進地以發展的觀點來指導強化，著眼于學生的動態發展，進行針對性的強化。
3.及時性原則
及時的強化有利于行為與強化之間建立直接的聯系，克服無關因素的干擾。如果強化與該行為的間隔時間過長，則強化的指向不明確，會引起學生行為的混亂。這就要求教師做好全面、細致的工作，能及時、準確地判斷出學生的反應。
4.效能性原則
基于SWOT的研究生自我教育能力分析
SWOT分析方法又叫態勢分析法，是上世紀80年代由美國管理學教授提出的一種能夠較客觀而準確地分析和研究一個單位現實情況的方法。S(strengths)代表優勢，W(weaknesses)是劣勢，O(opportunities)指機會，T(threats)表示威脅。其中S和W主要指影響被分析單位發展的內部因素，O、T主要是對被分析單位有影響的外部條件。下面將通過對研究生主體自身內部條件、面臨的外部環境進行有機結合來清晰地確定研究生自我教育的能力，了解研究生在進行自我教育方面有哪些優勢、劣勢和所面臨的機會和阻礙。
(一)S(strengths)
研究生具有較高的自我意識。所謂自我意識，就是一個人關于自身的認識，是作為主格我的自我對作為客格我的自我的存在活動及其過程的有意識的反應，也就是對個體自身及其與外部世界關系的一種認識。自我意識的高低是與個體的生理、心理成熟度密切相關的。個體的自我意識從產生到發展到相對穩定需要相當長的一段時間。從總體上看，研究生多是接受過本、?？齐A段教育的成年人，與本科生相較，其知識結構更加完整，知識層面也更為廣泛，同時多數研究生還具有一定的社會經驗或工作經歷，這就使其生理、心理成熟程度都要高于本科生，其獨立性也強與本科生。對自我的認識也比本科生全面與深刻。因而研究生自我意識也就高于本科生。自我意識的高低直接關系著自我教育的可行性及效果。自我意識高的個體要求強調自我，懷有對自己獨特的看法和態度，能夠對自己的行為進行沉思和反省，繼而做出一定的行為，以解決在活動中出現的問題。所以，較高的自我意識是研究生進行自我教育的一大優勢。
(二)W(weaknesses)
考研的盲目性削弱了研究生進行自我教育意識。自我教育意識是指個體要有自己對自己進行教育的認識，與自我意識相比，自我教育意識更為重要。自我意識是關于“我”的認識，而自我教育意識則是對“我要怎樣”的認識。但目前研究生對于我要怎樣的意識并不十分明確，原因在于研究生在選擇讀研的動機不單純。一方面，是為了緩解就業壓力。2010年，全國本科生畢業人數達到630多萬，而市場為本科生提供的就業崗位遠遠低于畢業生人數，為了緩解就業壓力，多數本科生選擇了考研。另一方面，是提高就業競爭力。研究生大多是抱著通過讀研獲取學位增加就業的砝碼以利將來的就業這一想法報考研究生專業的。因為在現實中，研究生相對本科生還是有一定的優勢的。他們的目的只是為了獲得一張碩士畢業文憑。然而研究生教育的培養目標是研究生在本門學科上掌握堅實寬廣的基礎理論和系統深入的專門知識，具有獨立從事科學研究工作的能力，在科學或專門技術上做出創造性成果的高級專門人才。研究生更注重的是培養學生研究問題和分析問題的能力，特別是從事該學科科研教學的能力。而盲目考研導致研究生的目的不在本專業的學習、研究上。研究生的學習在于自主性，如果學生對學習不感興趣也就談不上自我在科研、學術上有所投入。這也是出現研究生學術水平、論文質量不高、論文造假等現象的主觀原因。主體沒有明確的目的也就不會有自我發展和自我完善，也就大大降低了研究生自我學習、自我管理、自我約束的自覺性和主動性。
(三)O(opportunities)
提高研究生自我教育意識和能力的外在機會體現在兩個方面:一是導師制，二是實踐機會較研究生多。導師制是研究生教育與本科生教育最大的不同，也是研究生進行自我教育的最有利的外在因素?！皩W為人師，行為世范”，研究生導師多是在該專業領域有很深造詣的教授或學者，理論功底深厚，思想品德高尚，在專業知識領域給研究生以指導，在行為思想上給研究生做出表率。教育部頒發的《教育部關于加強和改進研究德育工作的若干意見》(以下簡稱《意見》)亦指出:研究生導師對研究生為學為人都產生著重要影響。
導師在研究生自我教育意識和能力中所起的作用就是能激發研究生的自覺性，促進研究生的自我反思。導師是研究生階段接觸最多的，導師與研究生的關系不僅是師生關系，還可以是朋友、親人的關系。導師與研究生這一關系的特殊性可以從多方面影響研究生進行自我教育。一方面，研究生導師以個人魅力為研究生做出表率，使研究生以導師為學習對象以形成我要成為怎樣的人的意識。另一方面，導師對研究生進行教育。導師對研究生的學習提出要求，研究生為達到導師的要求而進行自我學習與自我管理，這是通過外在強制力來達到激發研究生學習的自覺性。
能力總是在實踐活動中得以表現和發展，并直接影響著活動的順利完成。助學助管助教是高校為提高研究生提供鍛煉能力的主要平臺。各種研究生會、社團亦是鍛煉研究生自我教育能力的機會。研究生在親自體驗的基礎上對自己的行為進行反思、評價，然后進行自我調節，在不斷的認識———實踐交替過程中形成自我教育的能力。另外，由于研究生課程較少，研究生有更多的課余時間接觸社會。
(四)T(threats)
1．實踐活動單一、缺乏針對性。目前高校對研究生的實踐活動主要是助學助管助教，沒有制定適合研究生專業性質和未來就業發展方向的實踐鍛煉形式。這就導致研究生自我教育意識的不明確。
2．我國一直以來都缺乏自我教育的傳統。長期以來的應試教育方式削弱了研究生自我教育意識?，F在的研究生從小學到大學接受的一直是應試教育，導致了研究生養成了被動的學習方式和學習理念，完全依賴于外在的規范、要求、路徑，一旦改變教育方式，很多研究生是不適應的。
3．群體間教育氛圍影響研究生自我教育。良好的學習氛圍是能夠影響自我教育意識和能力的。自我教育不僅是自己對自己的教育，也是通過他人教育對主體的激勵來刺激主體的自我學習的，這種他人教育不僅包括老師也包括研究生群體之間的相互學習與影響。研究生的獨立性較強，其學習與生活多少獨立進行的，同時，由于課程相對較少，研究生之間的聯系也減少，多是獨立進行學習，這就會造成研究生群體之間的相互影響與學習的機會減少，學術氛圍也淡薄。
結論
1．完善導師制，強化研究生自我教育意識。研究生自我教育意識本就較高，只是一些外在因素影響了其自我教育意識，因此這就需要完善導師制，讓導師多與研究生接觸，以導師的言談、行為方式提高自我教育意識。完善導師制從以下幾個方面出發:首先，加強導師與研究生之間的接觸與聯系;其次，減少導師帶學生的數量;再次，導師適時適量的給研究生布置學術任務并檢查指導。
本文首先分析了經濟學專業開設學年論文教學的必要性，然后分析學年論文教學存在的主要問題及其原因，最后提出提升學年論文質量的對策與建議，以達到提升學生的寫作能力和培養學生實踐創新能力的目的。
［關鍵詞］
學年論文；創新能力；經濟學專業
0引言
培養學生的創新實踐能力和全面提升學生的綜合素質，是高等教育的主要目標。創新實踐能力在大學生能力體系培養中居于核心地位。經濟學是一項專業性和技能性都很強的工作，現代社會對經濟學人才的需求層次越來越高，創新實踐能力已成為經濟學本科生的核心競爭力。學生的創新實踐能力需要通過諸多環節的培養來實現，本文重點探討在學生創新實踐能力培養中起著重要作用，卻被大多數高校所忽視的學年論文這一教學環節。
1經濟學專業開設學年論文教學的必要性
目前大多數高等院校的經濟學專業并未開設學年論文這一教學環節，但是，學年論文教學環節不僅有利于培養學生的創新實踐能力，而且有助于提高畢業論文的質量。
1．1學年論文是提升學生創新實踐能力的重要方式
創新是引領發展的第一動力，是現代社會的本質特征。大學生創新能力可分為學習能力、研究能力和實踐能力三個方面。其中，學習能力是指能自主地獲取所需的信息和知識，并能進行獨立思考的能力，這是培養其他創新能力的基礎；研究能力是指能自主確定研究題目、制定研究計劃和撰寫研究論文的能力，是創新能力培養的關鍵；實踐能力是指運用相關知識解決實際問題的能力，是創新能力培養的目的。學生創新能力的培養要從整體上系統地進行，學年論文作為關鍵的教學環節，起到承前啟后的作用。在學年論文環節，學生根據對現實經濟問題的觀察，確定研究題目，界定研究內容，運用科學的研究方法，解決現實中的經濟問題，這無疑會對學生創新實踐能力培養起到積極的促進作用。
1．2學年論文是提高學生畢業論文質量的有效途徑
經濟學專業學術論文要求學生綜合運用相關的理論知識和方法，深入研究現實中的經濟問題，這是經濟學專業教學工作的重要環節，也是對教學質量的檢驗。目前經濟學專業學生論文普遍存在選題空泛、內容空洞、缺乏創新、抄襲嚴重等問題，既沒有與社會實際需要相結合，也不能很好體現經濟學專業特點。究其原因，可以概括為以下幾個方面：高校擴招、就業壓力等方面的社會原因，導致畢業生素質下降且精力投入不足；高校的認知不到位和管理制度設計不合理等方面的原因，造成管理松懈；教學模式和課程體系等方面的原因，造成忽視學生寫作能力的培養。經濟學專業論文寫作能力的培養是一個循序漸進的過程，僅靠短期突擊訓練效果很難見效，應靠長期的積累來提高。學年論文在學生已掌握一定專業知識的基礎上，結合實際經濟問題展開研究，同時加強學生寫作能力訓練，學生不僅可以培養自己的研究興趣，還可以為畢業論文寫作奠定良好基礎。
2經濟學專業學年論文教學中存在的主要問題
2．1認識模糊
學年論文是本科生實踐教學的重要環節，要求學生在不占用正常教學時間的情況下完成，一般在第二學年和第三學年末進行。由于高校擴招帶來的就業壓力，很多高校對學年論文的作用認識不夠，沒有將學年論文列入本科生培養計劃。同時，學生對學年論文也很不重視，低年級學生習慣通過考試來取得學分，對撰寫學年論文感覺不適應；而高年級學生面臨考研和找工作的壓力，更是無暇顧及自己的學年論文。
2．2缺乏有效的管理機制
對本科學年論文教學進行管理是一項復雜的系統工程，它涉及出題選題、過程輔導和成績評價等環節。當前，我國只有少數高校推行學年論文制度，學年論文管理還存在諸多問題，缺乏有效的管理機制來確保學年論文的質量。同時，指導老師的積極性和責任心不強，未對學生進行必要的指導和監督；學校雖有學年論文的教學環節和要求，但未建立學年論文教學的激勵與評價機制，使學年論文這一教學環節未落到實處，形同虛設。
2．3高校的教學科研資源不足
隨著高校招生規模的不斷擴大，教師數量相對嚴重不足，平均每名教師要指導30名以上學生的學年論文，還要指導學生的畢業論文，同時還有其他的教學科研任務，教師不堪重負。老師在指導學生學年論文時，投入的時間與精力都有限，直接影響了學年論文的質量。很多高校的學術資源嚴重不足，數據庫無法滿足學生撰寫論文的需求，尤其是國外數據庫缺乏；圖書資源數量有限，學生能檢索到的文獻資料非常有限，這直接影響到學生學年論文質量的提高。
3經濟學專業學年論文教學存在問題的原因分析
3．1社會環境因素
就業率和考研率成為當前衡量我國高校辦學質量的重要尺度。在高校不斷擴招的背景下，大學生就業難成為突出的社會問題。大部分用人單位在招聘本科生時，對論文及其質量無人問津，論文成績不會影響自己的就業，所以，學生對論文很不重視，只要能通過就行。對于那些致力于考研的學生，因研究生招生對本科論文也不夠關注，大部分時間和精力都用于理論課的學習，以應對研究生入學考試的初試和復試，甚至有些學生將學年論文的寫作當成負擔，敷衍了事。
3．2高校本身的因素
高校自身的認識不到位，許多高校對學年論文的重要性認識不足，并沒有把學年論文列入重要的議事日程，學年論文工作僅僅是走走過場而已。學年論文管理制度設計不合理，存在許多尚需完善之處，制度中空話套話太多，缺乏行之有效的管理實施辦法和明確的標準，使學年論文管理制度在實施過程中形同虛設。制度貫徹執行力度也不夠，未將相關規定落到實處，多流于形式。高校目前面臨著很大的招生與就業壓力，如果對學年論文要求太高，會導致許多同學難以正常畢業，將影響到學校聲譽與學生就業，因此，在實際執行中，常出現對學生學年論文放低要求。
3．3教師方面的因素
由于高校的擴招和新專業不斷開設，造成高校師資力量嚴重不足，師資結構很不合理，教師既要承擔大量的教學和科研工作，又要面臨職稱評定等多重壓力，這將影響到學生學年論文的質量。由于高校制度和社會環境等方面因素，出現重課堂教學，輕學年論文的導向，導致教師在指導學年論文時責任心不強，投入的時間和精力非常有限，這也直接影響了學年論文的質量。同時，有些教師自身知識結構相對陳舊且更新緩慢，專業技術能力與實踐能力不強，不能給予學生以實質性指導，這都影響著學年論文質量的提高。
3．4學生方面的因素
大多數用人單位在招聘本科生時只關心學習成績和獲得的各種證書，使得學生認為學年論文沒有什么實際用處，只要能順利通過即可。同時，學年論文質量與學生的專業理論知識及自身綜合素質密切相關，許多高校學生的知識水平與能力不足，且很少進行學術論文寫作相關的訓練，缺乏文獻檢索能力和創新精神，不能將理論與實際很好地結合起來，影響了學年論文的質量。
4提升經濟學專業學年論文質量的對策措施
4．1提高認識，加大宣傳
學年論文有利于培養學生實踐創新能力和解決實際問題的能力，是經濟學專業教學實踐上的重要環節，從目前的實際來看，很多老師和學生對學年論文的重要性認識不夠，應加大宣傳，提高師生對學年論文的認識。通過撰寫學年論文，使學生熟練掌握學術論文的基本規范，深化對所學專業知識的理解，能為將來撰寫畢業論準備。
4．2科學組織，合理安排
結合經濟學專業特點和社會實際需要，開展經濟學專業學年論文工作。首先，將學年論文工作納入學校日常教學工作，從出題選題、過程監管與成績評定等環節來確保論文質量；其次，要科學合理安排學年論文組織工作，妥善安排學年論文的工作流程與時間，綜合考慮人才培養的目標、學生和教師的承受能力，真正發揮學年論文在實踐教學中的重要作用，提升學生的學習、思考及寫作能力；然后，論文題目應難易適中，既要有理論價值，又要有實踐意義，符合本專業培養目標，保證學生通過努力能在規定時間內完成寫作任務，提高自己運用經濟理論解決實際問題的能力。
4．3加強過程管理
嚴謹規范的管理制度是學年論文順利運行的基本保證，過程管理的完善對學年論文質量的提高至關重要。學年論文作為實踐教學的重要組成部分，需要其他教學環節相互配合以保障順利進行。需要建立學年論文過程長效管理機制，學校相關部門應結合專業特征，統籌規劃，從命題選題，師資配置，論文規范，學生紀律，成績評定等方面制定具體實施辦法。同時，學年論文的過程管理直接關系到論文的質量，應加強學年論文過程的監控，制定成績評定標準，讓學生真正得到老師的專業指導，提升學生的研究能力和寫作能力。
4．4重視實踐創新能力培養
學生的學年論文是培養學生實踐創新能力的有效途徑，在實施過程中應發揮學生的主動性和創造性，以學生實踐創新能力的培養為目標。老師在指導過程中應注重學生研究內容的學術性與規范化，重視學生邏輯分析、論證推理、歸納演繹等方面能力的訓練，引導學生自主學習、獨立思考，使學生的寫作能力、實踐能力和創新能力得到了鍛煉和提高。
5結語
學年論文質量的提高是一個復雜的系統工程，并非一朝一夕所能實現。需要學生的努力、教師的重視、學校相關制度的完善作為保障，以達到提升學生的寫作能力和培養學生實踐創新能力的目的。
作者：莫旋 陽玉香 單位：衡陽師范學院經濟與管理學院
主要參考文獻
［1］王偉，周景坤，章勝暉．國貿專業本科畢業論文選題與寫作問題的剖析［J］．對外經貿，2013（11）：142－144．
[論文摘 要]在第二語言的習得過程中,文化背景的差異將會導致交際困難以及交際信息的流失,因此,在外語教學過程中,文化教學必然要占一席之地。本文從理論角度闡述了跨文化交際的定義和目的,并提出如何培養學生跨文化交際的能力。此外,作者探討了文化教學的目的與意義,提出將文化教學貫穿于整個外語教學過程,從而使學生能夠真正具備跨文化交際的能力。
1.引言
語言是文化的載體,是文化密不可分的組成部分,它既受文化影響,又反作用于文化。在交際過程中,語言不僅受到語音、語法等規則的限制,還受到使用規則的制約,這里的使用規則即指語言所屬的社會文化,社會文化決定語言使用是否得體。在第二語言的學習過程中,外語學習者往往會將自己本國固有的文化模式嵌套入新的語言文化中,造成溝通的障礙,這便要求教師將文化引入到外語教學中,培養外語習得者跨文化交際的能力。
2.跨文化交際能力的培養及運用
2.1 跨文化交際的定義、目的
跨文化交際指本族語者與非本族語者之間的交際 , 也指任何在語言和文化背景方面有差異的人們之間的交際。由于不同的民族所處的生態、物質、社會及宗教等環境不同 , 因而各自的語言環境產生了不同的語言習慣、社會文化、風土人情等等諸語境因素。不同的文化背景造成人們說話方式的不同,進而造成溝通的障礙。由此,這便要求我們在外語教學過程中注重培養學生的跨文化交際能力。一般來說,跨文化交際研究的基本目的有以下三點:①培養人們對不同的文化持積極理解的態度。語言習慣、社會文化、風土人情、宗教信仰、教育背景的不同造成了文化的多樣性,在跨文化交際過程中,我們要對不同文化持理解支持的態度,通過發現對方的不同點,反過來加深對我們自身文化的理解,從而做到客觀地把握各自的文化特性。也就是說在發現差異的過程中,也要注意不可忽視大量的共同之處。②培養跨文化接觸時的適應能力。初次與不同的文化接觸時,往往會受到文化沖擊,從而產生某種不適應。要使交際得以繼續下去,必須設法減緩沖擊,提高適應能力。③培養跨文化交際的技能。隨著對外開放的進一步擴大,走出國門或留在國內參與跨 文化交際的人越來越多,他們都需要學習、掌握與不同文化背景的人打交道時的實際技能。
2.2跨文化交際能力的培養
隨著全球化進程的不斷加快,高科技的發展,交通通訊設施的不斷完善,世界各國政治、經濟、文化交流日益頻繁,因此,文化差異所造成的矛盾便漸漸凸顯。而初等教育時期對于英語的學習往往只停留在簡單的語法和詞匯方面,在高校外語教學中,則應更加注重對學生交際能力的培養,以便適應社會發展的進程。著名跨文化學家ruben認為實現有效交際的跨文化交際能力理應包括七個因素,它們分別是: 1)向對方表示尊敬和對其持積極態度的能力;2)采取描述性、非評價性和非判斷性態度; 3)最大限度了解對方個性的能力;4)移情能力;5)應付不同情境的靈活機動能力; 6)輪流交談的相互交往能力; 7)能容忍新的和含糊不清的情景,并能從容不迫對其作出反應的能力
以上七個方面完整的闡述了在跨文化交際中,外語習得者所應具備的能力,也正是高校外語教學中,教師對于學生的培養方向。為使學生具有以上七種能力,教師應從以下幾方面入手:
①教學中應將詞與詞的文化內涵相結合。在傳統的外語教學過程中,教師往往只向學生教授詞匯的表層意義,對于詞匯的文化意義并沒有加以深入的解釋說明。如dragon一詞,在中國傳統文化中,龍是吉祥、高貴的象征,而在西方社會則是邪惡的化身,因此,在詞匯的教學中,教師應向學生傳授詞的文化內涵以免造成溝通的障礙。
②教學中應注意不同文化下世界觀、價值觀的不同。在跨文化交際過程中,對于隱藏在文化深層里的世界觀、價值觀是回避不了的,人們恰恰是通過了解世界觀、價值觀的不同 ,來加深對跨文化交際的理解。在教學過程中,教師應注重將其他文化的世界觀、價值觀有意識的傳達給學生,從而培養學生跨文化溝通的能力。
③教學中介紹英語的交際習慣和行為方式。文化制約著人們的語言行為,在教學過程中,教師應注重介紹目的語國家的交際習慣和行為方式,讓學生了解差異并以本族人的觀點去理解目的語文化,使他們具備進行得體而有效的跨文化交際的能力。
④教學中注重非言語交際的運用。samovar(2000)等人將非言語交際定義為“在交際的環境中人為的和環境產生的對于傳播者或受傳者含有潛在信息的所有的刺激”, 因此它包括了言語行為之外的一切由人為的或由環境所產生的刺激,如:表情、手勢、身勢、觸摸、界域、服飾、副語言、時間、場景等,在跨文化交際中,非言語交際往往也決定著交際的成敗。
2.3跨文化交際的運用
語言最根本的作用即為交際,在跨文化交際過程中,我們必須要注意到兩種不同文化的差異性。英國人見面喜歡以天氣、地理環境、愛好等為話題,而將年齡、婚姻、收入作為禁忌話題,這都是我們在跨文化交際中應當注意的。此外,對于俚語、成語的學習也不可小視,在交際過程中
,對于俚語的誤解往往會造成交際的失敗,因此,有效而得體的運用適當的語言才能達到不同文化間溝通與交流的目的。
3文化教學的目的、意義
3.1文化教學的目的
在外語教學中,文化教學扮演著很重要的角色,因為外語教學的最終目的是讓學生具備交際的能力,培養學生用外語進行跨文化交際的能力。在外語教學中,教師應將文化教學融入到課程體系中,使語言學習者能夠將目的語文化與本族文化進行融會貫通,從而實現有效地跨文化交際。然而文化教學不能僅僅局限于課本,單純片面的傳授文化知識,應該設立模擬場景,讓學生真正的身臨其境,感受目的語文化,從而迅速提高跨文化交際交際能力。
此外,高等教育的文化教學往往只傳授于外語專業的學生,且外教也只教授外語專業學生,對于公外的學生來講,英美社會與文化的選修課資源不足,與外教交流機會少,這都造成文化教學難以在大學外語教學中得到普及。
對于外語專業學生,從其課程體系中我們可以很明顯的看到,文學方面課程所占比例要遠遠大于社會文化,并且,社會文化教學也只是注重歷史、地理、國家機構、文學藝術以及影響理解文學作品的背景知識,從這個層面上來看,大學外語專業教學的文化教學是為文學服務,而不是讓學生具備應用的能力。外語專業教師對于文化的理解往往也停留在初級層面,實踐與應用機會少,致使學生在與教師溝通的過程中只是簡單的學習到了語言的基本技能,缺乏實際跨文化溝通的能力。外籍教師的配置數量過少,達不到讓每名學生都得到鍛煉的既定教學目標,并且,外教的授課內容通常也只注重于口語的鍛煉,俚語的傳授,文化教學少之又少,只在溝通出現問題時才進行講解,不能夠盡早預見問題,迅速提高學生跨文化交際的能力。
外語教學的主要目的是培養學生進行跨文化交際的能力,因此,在外語教學中將文化教學融入到語言教學中,使學生能夠融會貫通目的語文化與本族文化,從而實現有效的跨文化交際,是文化教學的目的所在。
3.2文化教學的意義
文化教學應該貫穿于語言教學的每個階段,既然語言教學的最終目的是讓學生具備語用的能力,那么就必定要涉及文化教學。從學生學習的歷程中,我們不難以看出,在外語學習的初級乃至高級階段,教師都沒有將文化教學完整的納入到課程體系之內,在進行跨文化溝通過程中,學生實際應用能力差,往往不能準確地表達出自己的想法,濫用禁忌語,大談特談目的語國家的敏感話題,這都造成了對方的誤解,因此,從學生學習外語的初級階段,教學就應廣泛涉及文化教學,使學生從最開始就兼備語言能力與交際能力。
然而,文化教學不能只是表面功夫,如果只讓學生死記硬背一些文化事實,就會造成學生不知變通,因循守舊的后果。在教學過程中,盡量創造一些目的語國家的場景,使學生身臨其境,模擬進行跨文化交際行為,以不變應萬變,從而提高其實際應用的能力。
歸根結底,文化教學的正真內涵是讓學生真正的掌握跨文化交際的原理和技巧,并將其正確的應用到實踐中去,從而達到得心應手地進行跨文化交際的目的。
結論:本文從理論角度介紹了跨文化交際的定義、目的,并提出如何培養學生的跨文化交際能力,同時,在全球化進程日益加快的今天,學生跨文化交際能力的培養顯得尤為重要,然而,傳統的外語授課過程中往往只重用語言技能而忽視了語用與文化教學,因此,作者認為,文化教學應貫穿于整個外國語言教學的體系之內,以達到培養學生交際與應用的能力的目的,而如何有效并迅速的將文化與語言教學完美融合并得以普及是目前高等教育中外語教學需要長期探索的一個主要方面。
參考文獻:
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[2]魏泓.跨文化交際與語言文化多樣性的關系探析.上海海事職業技術學院.
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摘 要
近年來，隨著我國改革開放的發展和我國與國際間的經濟、科技、文化交流日益頻繁，人們越來越重視外國文化問題。同時，我們也逐漸認識到了了解外國文化在對外交往中的重要性。在教育領域中，外語教學也漸漸重視對學生交際能力的培養。然而，對許多老師而言，文化教學還是一個較新的概念，從跨文化角度對英語教學進行研究探討在目前還是個新領域。我們必須認識到交際能力的培養是外語教學的主要目標，培養學生跨文化交際的技能是中學外語教學要達到的一個目標。文化教學在中學英語教學中的重要性不可忽視，英語學習者不了解英語國家的文化，就無法獲得交際能力。因此在中學英語口語教學中應該目標明確地，循序漸進地，方法得當地導入文化教學，使英語學習者在學習語言和知識的同時受到文化的熏陶，在跨文化交際中游刃有余。
關鍵詞： 跨文化交際；文化教學；中學英語口語教學
ABSTRACT
Since last century, because of reforming and opening policy, many people, especially young people go abroad to get a better job or get further education and so on. Besides, many foreigners are curious about our country. Consequently, people come to realize that if we know little about cross-cultural communication, there will be many conflicts. Some experts suggest that today’s English teaching should emphasize intercultural communication. Learners ought to know not only grammar or words, but should learn cultural knowledge. If not, they will meet many difficulties while they communicate with foreigners. Therefore, it is important to introduce this kind of knowledge while teaching. We can’t neglect the importance of culture teaching in middle school foreign language teaching, English teachers should integrate culture into ELF teaching gradually and appropriately. Thus the students may have a better understanding of the target language, and they may communicate freely and effectively in cross-culture communication.
Keywords：Cross-cultural communication; Cultural teaching; middle school ELF oral teaching
Contents
1. Introduction 2
2. the concept of intercultural communication 3
2.1 Literature review 3
2.2 Definition of intercultural communication 4
3.A survey based on classroom observations 7
3.1 The analysis of interviews 7
3.2 The analysis of a questionnaire 7
3.2.1 Data analysis on the questionnaire (1) 9
3.2.2 Data analysis on the questionnaire (2) 10
3.2.3 Data analysis on culture curriculum 12
4. Ways of improving cross-cultural communication competence in middle school oral teaching 15
4.1 The necessity of develop cross-cultural communication competence 17
4.2 Some strategies for improving cross-cultural communication competence in the ELF oral learning in chinese middle school 17
4.2.1 Some strategies to learners 17
4.2.2 Some strategies to teachers 19
5. Conclusion 25
Acknowledgements 26
References 27
AppendixⅠ 28
1． Introduction
Language is just like a mirror that reflects its national culture. Sociologists and anthropologists believe that culture comprises all products of human activity, including fields of literature, art, music, architecture, and scientific as well as aspects of customs, life-style, code of conduct, worldly wisdom and social organization, etc. Languages are generally accepted words and rules drawn from speech. Language is the carrier of culture and culture is the content of language20.
Worldwide interest in intercultural communication grows out of two assumptions. First, we live in an age when changes in technology, travel, economy, and political systems, immigration patterns, especially the emergence of Internet, have created a world in which we increasingly interact with people from different cultures. And whether we like it or not, these interactions will continue to grow in both frequently and intensely. Second, people now know that the influence of culture affects communication in a subtle way. Our culture perceptions and experiences help determine how the world looks and how we interact in the world.
However, as we look back to see the situation in China’s high schools. We see that, for several decades, language teachers have not been able to pay attention to the role of culture knowledge in language oral teaching. Nowadays, in the ELF oral teaching, especially in middle school, teachers pay much attention to vocabulary.
As Chinese culture is not the same as that of English-speaking countries, the rules for using Chinese are, in some respects, different from those using English. There is especially good evidence that Chinese students may transfer their mother tongue references of language used to their English performance and fail to communicate effectively[1]24. Misunderstanding caused by cross-cultural communication should break down and much attention should be paid to them in English language t eaching.
So in middle school ELF oral teaching, teachers must not only improve students’ language level, but also pay attention to cultivating students’ abilities of intercultural communication.
2. The concept of intercultural communication
2.1 Literature review
More and more common practice of intercultural communication promotes the emergence of the concept of intercultural communicative competence. It is a challenging issue for language study and language teaching.
In 1965, Chomsky put forward the concept of linguistic competence and linguistic performance. Later, it was challenged by Campbell and Wales (1970) and Hymes (1972). Hymes (1972) argues that the appropriateness of language is the core of communicative competence, and he sees communicative competence as part of cultural competence. Canale and Swain (1980) put forward a more complex framework, and Canale (1983) summarized communicative competence in the way that it includes four component parts --- grammatical, sociolinguistic, discourse, and strategic. Canale’s conclusion in fact suggests that all aspects of language using are determined by culture. The continuous theoretical research of communicative competence has paved the way for the development of language teaching in which cultural factors are considered more and more important.
In 1975, the first textbook on intercultural communication “An Introduction to Intercultural Communication” (Conden & Yousef ) was published, and many other books followed it. The research on intercultural communication has developed quickly, and has exerted incredible influence on language and cultural teaching.
Traditional language teaching divides language techniques into listening, speaking, reading and writing. Deman (1987) applied the theories of intercultural communication to language and cultural teaching, and viewed cultural teaching as the fifth dimension of language teaching. Seelye published a book named “Teaching Culture: Strategies for Foreign Language Education” in 1984. Gumperz (1982) conducted investigations on the “discourse strategy” of the communicators who had a non-English cultural background and who spoke English as the second language. He revealed that those communicators’ assumptions of the world that had been formed in their native cultural context would exert great influence on intercultural communication. This, in turn, has stimulated a trend in language teaching that sees culture as discourse (Widdowson, 1984; Mclarthy, 1991; Kramsch, 1993; Candlin,1994; Hanks,1996). So since 1990, process-centered and task-oriented teaching mode has been widely adopted in the west.
Besides, American applied linguist G. Robinson (1985) put forward an important concept that through language and cultural teaching learners would gain “Cultural Versatility”. That is to say, through learning culture, learners would change internally. This viewpoint is quite significant.
Prof. Michael Bryam’s research is also strikingly notable. He holds that foreign language education includes four parts: language learning, language understanding, cultural understanding, and cultural experience.
2.2 Definition of intercultural communication
“Intercultural Communication” can hence be defined as the interpersonal interaction between members of different groups, which differ form each other in respect of the knowledge shared by their members and in respect of their linguistic forms of symbolic behavior. In this Concepts of intercultural and Combines the Concepts of intercultural and communication, It also describes the problems and pitfalls of misunderstanding and the skills and competence required for successfully understanding member of other culture.
Thanks to Edward T. Hall who is regarded as the founder of intercultural communication, a new brink knowledge, intercultural communication, has been becoming more and more widespread in the whole world ever since the publication of his great work The Silence Language. Intercultural communication is a symbolic, interpretive, transactional, contextual processing tool with which people from different cultures create shared meaning[2]115. Intercultural communication occurs whenever a message produced in one culture must be processed in another culture. It can best be understood as cultural variance in the perception of social objects and events. The barriers to communication caused by this perceptual variance can best be lowered by a knowledge and understanding of cultural factors that are subject to variance, coupled with an honest and sincere desire to communicate successfully across cultural boundaries.
Intercultural communication refers to communication between persons who have d ifferent cultural beliefs, values, or ways of behaving.
2.2.1 Cultural and cross-cultural communication
Cultural awareness in language learning is the ability to be aware of cultural relativity following reading, writing, listening and speaking. As Claire kramsch points out…[12]
If…language is seen as social practice, culture becomes the very core of language teaching, cultural awareness must then be viewed as enabling language proficiency…
Language itself is defined by culture. Language competent cannot be achieved without a good understanding of culture that shapes it, especially in foreign language learning. It is not only therefore essential to have cultural awareness, but also have cross-cultural communication awareness, such as the understanding of the relationship between target culture and native culture.
2.2.2 Culture teaching and ELF oral teaching in middle school
The interrelationship between culture teaching and language teaching has been explored in depth by Michael Byram. The basis of Byram’s position is that it views language as a cultural phenomenon, embodying the values and meanings particular to a specific society, referring to the traditions and artifacts of that society and signaling its people’s sense of themselves—their cultural identity: “to teach foreign culture is to introduce learners to new competences and to allow them to reflect upon their own culture and cultural competence[2].” It is assumed by others that language could somehow stand alone and be taught as a value-free symbolic system. But the social nature of language works oppositely when separating it from its original culture, especially when appearing in overseas contexts, where the learners’ contact with the culture is largely confined to the foreign language classroom.
Traditional foreign language teaching does not pay much attention to cultural factor. It focuses mainly on the vocabulary and structure of the language. But plenty of facts prove that language is not only a symbol, a system, which put forward by pure linguistic theory scholar, but also a social practice. Therefore successful foreign language teaching must help the student master the knowledge of culture rules, in addition to use them in particular situation. Every nation has its unique culture pattern and language is the carrier of culture. For instance, Asians emphasize the importance of orderly society whereas Americans emphasize the importance of personal freedom and individual rights. For effective and appropriate communication, learners in middle school must be familiar with the differences in the foreign culture which they are learning and take according language behaviors.
3. A survey based on classroom observations
Survey date: 25/02/2009
Survey instrument: interview and questionnaire.
Subjects: students of Ning Bo Chai Qiao middle school. 30 students are interviewed, 98 students (30 interviewed students and another 68 students) participate in questionnaire. All the 98 copies of questionnaire are valid.
The objective of this survey is to investigate:
1) Students’ attitudes towards cross-cultural communication in the ELF oral learning
2) Current situation of students’ information input.
3.1 The analysis of interviews
Thirty English learners are interviewed and are invited to answer only one question: what is a competent language learner like in your eyes? The responses tend to fall into three categories:
(1) Twenty five interviewees think that he or she is good at English listening, speaking, reading and writing abilities, especially at speaking and listening;
(2) Ten of them think he or she is familiar with foreign culture and is a successful cross-cultural communicator.
(3) Five of them think a good command of native language is necessary.
In order to describe more directly, the results of interviews are put into a table (Table.1).
Table1. Results of the Interview
Positive attitudes Percentage
Language proficiency learning(reading, writing, speaking and listening) 83.33％ (25/30)
Accumulation of culture 33.33％ (10/30)
Mother tongue proficiency 16.67％ ( 5/30)
These students’ responses reveal the following information:
Firstly, these students still see the four basic skills (speaking, listening, reading and writing) as their main study objective. Secondly, cross-cultural communication competence has already been realized by language learners, but this group is small compared to the whole. Thirdly, the importance of mother tongue competence has only been seen by a few interviewees.
According to this interview, most interviewees have realized the importance of language proficiency in language learning, but the point is why only one third of the interviewees have realized the importance and necessity of cross-cultural communicative competence since which are discussed so warmly in present language teachin g world? Do they hold a negative view on it or do they just have not yet obtained the awareness consciously?
3.2 The analysis of a questionnaire
The English learning questionnaire consists of nine closed-ended questions (see Appendix), For instance, “you have the interest and passion in English and language learning”, and the answers falls into four types:
1. Strongly Agree (SA) 2. Agree (A) 3. Disagree (D) 4. Strongly Disagree (SD)
According to the research content, the analysis of questionnaire is divided into two parts. The first five are put in Table 2 and the rest four questions are put in Table 4.
3.2.1 Data analysis on the questionnaire (1)
This part of analysis involves data analysis on questions 1-5 in the questionnaire and a comparison between the responds of the interviews and the questionnaire.
3.2.1.1 Data analysis on the questionnaire (1)
Table2. Results of Questions 1-5 in Questionnaire
SA A D SD
1) The cultivation of English skills(reading, writing, speaking and listening) is the foundation of the language learning 60.29％ 31.65％ 2.04％ 6.02％
2) Reading English novels everyday is necessary 17.35％ 69.39％ 13.26％ 0.00％
3) It is important to acquire a good knowledge of native language in the ELF oral learning 44.90％ 53.06％ 2.04％ 0.00％
4) The accumulation of language and cross-cultural communication competence are of equal importance 50.00％ 48.98％ 1.02％ 0.00％
5) It is necessary to read materials regularly about politics, economy, culture, and so on 39.80％ 60.20％ 0.00％ 0.00％
Questions 1-5 (see appendix) indicate a clear picture of students’ attitudes towards language proficiency learning, native language learning, and accumulation on cross-cultural communication competence, literature, and politics and so on. On the importance of the cultivation of reading, speaking, listening and writing in language learning, 91.94% (60.29% SA+31.65% A) of English majors agree and of which 64.29% strongly agree. On daily English novels reading, a total of 86.74% (17.35% SA+69.39% A) consider it necessary. On the necessity a good command of native language, 97.96% (44.90% SA+53.06% A) of English learners agree. On the relation of native language learning and foreign language learning, 98.98% (50.0% SA+48.98% A) believe that these two are of equal importance. Finally, on a regularly reading of politics, economy, and culture, all (39.80% SA+60.20% A) the students hold a supportive attitude.
3.2.1.2 Comparison between the interviews and the questionnaire
With regards to the similarities of the contents examined, it seems necessary to
have a comparison between the responds of the interviews and the questionnaire.
Table3. Comparison between the Interviews and the Questionnaire
Positive attitudes (SA+A) Interview
(open-ended) Questionnaire
(close-ended)
Foreign Language proficiency learning(reading, writing, speaking and listening) 83.88％ 91.94％
Accumulation of intercultural communication competence 33.33％ 98.98％
Mother tongue proficiency 16.67％ 97.96％
From the table above, the comparison is very clear that, towards the same research content, interviewees’ responds vary when they are faced with different types of questions. The gap is especially seen on the accumulation of cross-cultural communication competence and native language proficiency. Compared with open-ended question in the interview, interviewees tend to hold a more supportive view on closed-ended questions in the questionnaire. In other word, most English learners subjectively admit the importance of the accumulation of cross-cultural communication competence and native language proficiency, but the point is, not all of them have already obtained the awareness. However, two questions have been proposed from the comparison: (1) Why English learners have not obtained the cross-cultural awareness which should be tied up with the ELF oral learning? (2) Is that because they subjectively lack learning motivation or objectively, they lack timely and efficiently teachers’ cultural guidance?
3.2.2 Data analysis on the questionnaire (2)
This part of questionnaire (table4 in next page) mainly focuses on students’ attitudes towards learning motivation as well as classroom learning. Before the analysis is taken, a brief introduction on motivation can help to have a better understanding on the analysis.
1) Integrative motivation
Motivation has been identified as the learners’ orientation with regards to the goal of learning foreign language69. This form of motivation is known as integrative motivation.
.2) Instrumental Motivation
In contrast to integrative motivation is the form of motivation which is known as in strumental motivation. This is generally characterized by the desire to obtain something practical from the study of foreign language[9]125. With instrumental motivation, the purpose of study is more practical, such as meeting the requirements for college graduation, applying for a job and achieving higher social status.
Table4. Results of Questions 6-9 in Questionnaire
SA A D SD
6) Your have the interest and passion in the ELF oral learning 14.29％ 61.22％ 21.43％ 3.06％
7) You would prefer to get an English-related job after the graduation 21.43％ 66.33％ 11.22％ 1.02％
8) The present classroom teaching can cultivate your learning abilities and improve your cross-cultural skills 2.04％ 7.14％ 71.43％ 19.39％
9) You hope to have English class in various forms such as discussion, presentation, debate, performance and so on. 25.51％ 63.27％ 9.18％ 2.04％
As is shown in the table (results of questions 6 and 7), 75.51% (14.29%SA+61.22%A) of English learners have the interest and passion in language learning, and 87.76% (21.43%SA+66.33%A) of them would like to get an English related job in the future. According to the introduction of motivation, the answers to those two questions (questions 6 and 7) can be taken as the representation of integrative and instrumental motivation respectively. Therefore, a conclusion can be made that, most students subjectively want to make a living by using their language competence.
In order to check the condition of students’ cultural information input, questions 8 and 9 are designed and analyzed. 89.82% (71.43%D+19.39SD) of English learners do not think that the present classroom teaching can cultivate their learning abilities and improve their cross-cultural communication competence, whereas a total of 88.78% (25.51%SA+63.27%A) hope to have English class in various forms such as discussion, presentation, debate, performance and so on. It can be found that most English majors are not satisfied with the current classroom teaching. They hope to enjoy a more interactive and communicative teaching style. The traditional text-based grammatical and linguistic teaching could not meet the needs of the cultivation of communicative competence to some extent. What’s more important is that students are supposed to have a consciously as well as unconsciously cultural awareness promote by language teachers.
3.2.3 Data analysis on culture curriculum
It is shown from the result of question 8 in the table above (table 4) that present foreign language teaching has not provided a satisfactory fruit on cultural awareness cultivation. A question should be taken into consideration, that is, how can cross-culture awareness be expressed in the foreign language curriculum, with the purpose to cultivate language learners’ cultural awareness and communication insight into the target civilization? For a long time, this has been attempted by introducing the geographical environment and historical or political development of the foreign culture, its institutions and customs, its literary achievements, and even everyday life of its people. Take English learners in Ning Bo Chai Qiao middle school as an example, their cultural input has largely come from courses such as Extensive Reading, Communication between Cultures, American Literature, and An Outline Introduction to Britain and America, and so on. Following is a basic analysis on the four courses.
Table5. Courses Information
Course Duration Teacherˊs background
Extensive Reading first 4 terms Chinese
Communication between cultures the 7th term New Zealander
American literature the 7th term Chinese
An Outline Introduction to Britain and America the 7th term Canadian
Extensive Reading was taught by a Chinese teacher during the first four terms, and the teaching contents mainly focus on western culture, economy, politic, education and so on. After two years study, it helps students build up a general view on western civilization. Communication between Cultures is taught by a English-speaking teacher from New Zealand, the teaching content seems “boring and meaningless” said the majority of students, the teacher read the chapters from the book to the class instead of giving practical cross-cultural communication analysis. So for most students, they did not learn as much as they expected from this course. American literature was taught by a Chinese teacher, and the teaching contents include background information introduction and literacy reading. An Outline Introduction to Britain and America was taught by a Canadian teacher who has a good experience on both British and American cultures. In this course, students are introduced to a comparison of the British and American culture.
From what have been introduced above, it can be seen that although there are four courses and an 28-month course duration, most of what students have taken is an education of “cultural background knowledge” on Chinese or English rather t han practical cross-cultural communication stimulation such as comparisons or contradictions between the target and native culture. To some extent, it revels why most English students have not got a conscious awareness in cultural or cross-cultural communication competence.
Through comparisons between the interview and the questionnaire, it can be seen that students hold positive attitudes on develop the competence of intercultural communication, but for some reasons, not so many have already obtained conscious cross-cultural awareness. Through further analysis of curriculum on cultural teaching, it reveals that present cultural teaching in ELF oral teaching shows the weakness in practical, sufficient and conscious cultural input to help build up language learner’s cross-cultural awareness. Moreover, the current teaching is also expected to be more communicative and interactive. Thus, following on are the possible ways to promote the competence of intercultural communication,
4.1 The necessity of develop cross-cultural communication competence
Firstly, it is vital for language teachers to help language learners develop their cross-cultural communication competence. If the final purpose of intercultural communication competence cultivation is to help students to acquire cross-cultural communication competence, then what cross-cultural communication competence is? According to Kramsch’s opinion, cross-cultural awareness is not really a skill, but a collection of skills and attitudes known as a competence[12].
Secondly, it is necessary to make clear what cross-cultural awareness skills students are supposed to acquire. It has been suggested that cross-cultural awareness consists of having four different perspectives on communication with a different culture. Cross-cultural competent students should be able to:
----look at their own culture from the point of view of their own culture (for example, having a good understanding and awareness of their own culture)
----Be aware of how their culture is seen from outside, by other countries or cultures
----understand or see the target culture from its own perspective (for example, understanding and being aware of what other people think of their own culture)
----Be aware of how they see the target culture
4.1.1 The request of the development of Internationalization
Lin Dajin in the “cross-cultural communication study, ” pointed out that culture can be defined as “ the integrated feature that a nation is distinct from another nation. ” Cultural differences are the barriers of cross-cultural communication. The modernization process accelerated the circulation of spiritual and material products, and brought all nationalities into a common “global village”, cross-cultural communication became an integral part of national life. If people do not understand the cultural convention in the USA or Britain, and use the way of China to treat foreigners, then it will create a lot of jokes, and even hurt each other's feelings, self-esteem and cause misunderstanding. Thus, to overcome the cultural differences caused by communication barriers has become a common problem faced by the entire world.
4.1.2 It is imperative to understand the cultural background knowledge
Understanding cultural knowledge is the key to language learning. “One can not really learn the language, and teach language well unless one knows the patterns and norms of culture and cultural background[14]224. ” Without a specific cultural background, language is non-existent. If we don’t know the culture of target language, we would find it is difficult to understand the meaning of certain words. For example, “Thanksgiving”, “Sandwich” has been brought about in a specific social and historical circumstance, it is not enough merely to know the meaning of the surface of these words. Another example is: “You are, indeed, a lucky dog”, the literal translation is “you are a lucky dog. ” This is a satiric sentence in China, because, in Chinese views, “dog” is an expression when people used to refer generally to dislike someone. While in English, it can mean, “You are a lucky man. ” In Western society, “dog” is a family member, and they are harmonious coexisting with people “Dog” here refers to people instead of satirizing others, but a very intimate expression.
4.1.3 Cultural knowledge teaching is the objective of language teaching
The main objective of language teaching is to train and develop students’ interpersonal skills. And cultural knowledge teaching can increase the ability of cross-cultural communication, which is the important content to achieve goals of language teaching. For example, in American society, praise and compliments language that flatter mainly a personal appearance, new things, personal property, and individuals in a ce rtain area are commonly used as the introduction to a conversation. This is different from Chinese. Thus, different nations have different cultural environments, different living habits and different languages behavior expressions. And as a language learner, if not ideologically “physically entering their social linguistic environment” will be difficult to achieve the goal of language learning，not to say that language teaching objectives will be accomplished.
4.2 Some strategies for improving cross-cultural communication competence in the ELF oral learning in Chinese middle school
After the survey research and data analysis, now we have a clear idea of the common reasons that triggered the weakness of the cross-cultural communication in middle school ELF oral teaching. However, we do not have a clarity solution about this situations. Therefore, some strategies were listed here to help learners with their language learning.
4.2.1 Some strategies to learners
4.2.1.1Raising culture awareness
Culture awareness is the term we have used to describe sensitivity to the impact of culturally---induced behavior on language use and communication. It including two qualities: one is awareness of one’s own culture, the other is awareness of the culture[7]15.
Unfortunately, in China, cross-cultural communication errors can be found from time to time. In the ELF oral learning, culture factor needs to be taken seriously. To cultivate students’ intercultural communication we need first to arouse their cultural awareness. Because of different cultural background, life experience, profession, sex, education, even age, character, people may have different modes of interaction. People learn to think, feel, behave and strive for what their culture considers proper. These means there might not be the same as what is intended by the speaker. If we are aware of this, we can avoid ethnocentricity, and can have better communication with people all over the world.
Speakers of a foreign language often have the experience of making careless mistakes which may cause get angry, may be embarrassing and may arouse hostility from native speaker. Often such mistakes occur even though the application of the linguistic rules of grammar, vocabulary or pronunciation is correct. These mistakes are culture errors but occur because of not knowing or choosing the appropriate style, and manner to use for effective communication.
4.2.1.2 The development of sensitiveness to culture differences
There are four stages in the development of the sensitiveness to culture differences. The first, one can make out the obvious, superficial culture characteristics. In other word, he will find them interesting and exotic. The second, one can judge the delicate meaningful cultural characteristics that are quite different from his own. Usually he will feel them incredible or hard to accept .The third, one can accept the cultural characteristics after rational analysis. The fourth, one can be in the other peoples’ shoes and appreciate the cultural characteristics. In other words, the first three stage can be understood, and the fourth empathy.
4.2.1.3 The development of empathy
In order to communication effectively, you need a deep degree of empathy, that is to be able to understand the other person’s affective and cognitive states. Empathy differs from sympathy in that it does not include pity or approval. And focuses on the feelings of others, not our own[12]114. Empathy involves relativism and flexibility, which knowledge alone cannot consist. Teachers can create good classroom environment where students tolerate and appreciate different norms by bringing up students’ empathy. In China, we always emphasize collectivism instead of individualism. But in English class, we advocate differences, to encourage students to understand each other.
To facilitate empathy, we can take these measures:
(1) Subjects like history, anthropology, and sociology should be introduced into
the curriculum. Through these subjects, the students can not only acquaint themselves with the examples of foreign culture, but also master some concepts and principles concerning with culture.
(2) The students should be encouraged to read broadly in Chinese middle
school, both fiction non-fiction, literal or philosophical. Including proverbs, broad reading can be a student better understand and communicate with other cultures. Only through broad reading can he know the taboos, values, beliefs and religion of another culture, only through broad reading can be truly come to realize why privacy is so important and that individualism is so cherished.
(3) The students should he sent abroad for further study if possible. Thus they
can live with the natives for some time, no chance is better than the close contact. They can enjoy the new culture. By enhancing ICC, the intercultural communication of the learners can be carried out tactfully, acco rding to different context.
4.2.2 Some strategies to teachers
Language teachers are supposed to exert instructional strategies to help language learners promote their cross-cultural communication competence, that is, provide language learners with some useful ideals for presenting culture from its own perspective, for example, understanding and being aware of what people in target culture think of their own culture.Chinese teachers should take advantage of foreign teachers. Foreign teachers are rich in knowledge, idiomatic English, strong teaching culture context, full of wit and humor, longing to understand much more about Chinese culture. This attitude can have a great influence on students, and increased their desire of learning English well and knowing about the culture of English-speaking countries. Teachers can make full use of such rare chances and consult foreign teachers that they are according to the calendar, then all of the teachers and students can try their best to create all kinds of conditions to speak them imitatively —Action speak louder than words. Just as what we mentioned above, we have been aware of the importance of learning some cultural knowledge about the target language. It seems impossible and unnecessary for us to have a systematic study of target culture, which covers almost everything, in one’s whole lifetime. The difficulty shows that culture is ubiquitous, multidimensional and complex. A good solution to this problem might be to learn selectively those cultural factors that have great influence on intercultural communication, and that are closely related to the language. So on culture teaching we should follow these principles :( 1) interrelated. that is culture teaching must be interrelated with the content of the text. (2) Appropriate, that is culture teaching must be subjected to language teaching. (3) Practical, that is culture teaching must try to be “useful” for students in their communication. (4) Scientific, that is culture knowledge must be taught correctly, completely and objectively. (5) Flexible, that is culture teaching must be flexible according to the change of the world.
We must obey these five principles if we want to cultivate students’ abilities of cross-cultural communication. What we should teach in ELF classes is simply a foreign way of life related to the target language and teachers should avoid bringing their own cultural prejudice into class. The world is changing, so are the traditions and customs. The constant changes require us to improve our skills of intercultural communication by doing two things: understanding the cultural differences, especially the differences in the deep structure of different cultures, and becoming flexible in intercultural communication. There is a great tendency that one culture adopts the elements from another that are compatible with its own values and beliefs or that can be changed without causing major disruption.
4.2.2.1 Make full use of developing the interest of the competence of intercultural communication in the ELF oral learning in Chinese middle school
Intercultural communication is a big issue, which is not easy for both teachers and students to understand and realize. For successful cultural teaching, we suggest doing the following:
(1) Teach culture differences. Teachers should directly address the similarities and peculiarities between the source culture and the target culture. This can be done through the comparison of the two cultures.
(2) Provide opportunities for students to use the language in situational conversations. While introducing the students play a real-life role and practice their everyday language use according to the varied situation.
(3) Induce students to read literal works, which are vivid and abundant material to understand the character, the psychological state, culture characteristics, convention, and social relationships. Reading newspaper is also the direct path.
(4) Be aware of your students development level, when selecting themes or concepts to present. At first, learning activities should be clear and specific in lower levels, gradually, becoming more complex than the level of the student increases. There are a variety of children’s fiction which presents concepts like similarities, differences and prejudice which can be used at lower levels. At upper levels fiction and biographies can be used to present the more complicated ideas. Try to connect the unfamiliar with the familiar, the known with the unknown.
(5) Use plenty of ways in both general learning tasks and in language learning tasks.
(6) Use varied methods to check the understanding level of the students.
(7) Be enthusiastic. As a teacher you need to be aware of the value of learning a second language in terms of its contribution to developing cultural aware and a range of other cognitive and vocational benefits. Your attitude will influence the attitudes of the child ren in the class and their parents.
Beside, Chinese teachers should take advantage of foreign teachers. Foreign teachers are rich in knowledge, idiomatic English, strong teaching culture context, full of wit and humor, longing to understand much more about Chinese culture. This attitude can have a great influence on students, and increased their desire of learning English well and knowing about the culture of English-speaking countries. Teachers can make full use of such rare chances and consult foreign teachers that they are according to the calendar, then all of the teachers and students can try their best to create all kinds of conditions to speak them imitatively —Action speak louder than words.
For example, we once tried to spend Christmas and Hallowmas with all foreign teachers together in our school .The students were very interested and active in the activities， and such experiences can have impressed them strongly and forever.
Teachers should encourage students to communicate with foreign teachers and some other foreigners in and out of school. Students and foreign teachers can have classes, play games and take part in many kinds of activities together. Communicating with foreigners can provide students with the real cultural context in which English is used actually and stimulate students to learn English well including knowing about foreign culture.
As the success of many activities depends on good organization and on the students knowing exactly what they are to do. A teacher is thus mainly an organizer, whose work is different from administrator of a school system. But the teacher, like any other organizer, works primarily with people, and his task and responsibility are to create situations in which people can do their best and achieve their best.
Since teachers are key roles during culture teaching, they must play a positive role in helping the students to develop intercultural communicative competence and increase the students’ chances to succeeding in both language learning. It is not an expendable skill tacked on to the teaching of speaking, listening, writing and reading. It is always in some background. Lack of intercultural competence will limit the students’ ability to make sense of the world around them, and lead to failure in using English for communication across-culture.
4.2.2.2 Make full use of pictures, films, TV, computers and other audio-visual aids to make the teaching lively and interesting. Explore to the full the opportunities for students with the target culture information.
(1) Plays in and out of class
It is proved that plays in and out of class are probably the most efficient ways of language teaching.
The role of plays and dramas manifests itself when learners perform by themselves. Mini-dramas acted by students expose them to a “process of self-confrontation” with the target cultural communicates. The learners can act out mini-dramas written by them, which show misinterpretation of something that happens in the target cultural context. The cause of the problem is usually clarified in the final scene. Cultural similarities and differences will be analyzed by way of follow-up discussion.
In the listening book of Senior English book3 unit24, the material involves “finding a job”, English teachers can extract one or two advertisements from the magazine for students. Teachers can ask the students to divide into two groups, one group act as recruiters, and the other group act as applicants. By looking at the advertisements, appointing to interview, using some simple props, students can exchange views on working conditions, wages and other issues. Thus, students can understand the practical knowledge of Foreign Service work; the actors also can improve their abilities of practical language.
A short play can be broken down into sections. As learners learn (not memorize) one section, they move on to the next. By combining the sections, they have learned the play. The use of this technique enables different groups of learners to work on several short plays at the same time and leads to the creation of several shirt plays simultaneously.
Drama is a useful tool in cultural learning. A full semester’s work can be built around a drama project, or it can fill five or ten minutes at the beginning or end of a lesson. It encourages the learners to view the linguistic and cultural knowledge as a tool for communication rather than as an academic subject. It can bring life and vitality to the classroom.
(2) Classroom presentation
At the beginning of each lesson, teachers can hold a “cultural corner” sessions, with 5-10 minutes. Teachers or students can introduce one aspect of Western culture, such as famous events of foreign country in history, a prominent figure in the world, or some literary works. To accumulate the cultural knowledge for a long time, students’ cultural knowledge will naturally become broad and rich.
(3) Photo display
Use maps, photographs, and illustrations of the text to introduce relative cultural elements vividly. For instance, when we teach the States of Liberty which appears in the lesson 10 of junior English book3, at first we can display a wall chart of the Statue of Liberty in the United States in front of the classroom, then ask the students to identify it and then observe the Statue of Liberty carefully in the facial expressions, posture language, the hold-high arm and torch. And then teachers can introduce the following cultural background briefly: Batuoerdi, a French sculptor, builds U.S. Statue of Liberty. He takes his mother's face and his wife's body as models to manufacture it. The Goddess of Liberty not only has swallowed vicissitudes face, but also perseverance. The torch in her hand is a symbol of freedom shining all over the world. Then teachers can guide the students to make analysis of the understanding of American national spirit through the Statue of Liberty. Teachers also can allow the students to list their deepest impression in other countries or ethnic representation construction.
(4) Song appreciation
The important function of the songs is to express one’s wishes. Many lyrics and melody of songs are also full of rich cultural content. Students generally are interested in songs. If time is enough in the class, teachers can choose one or two representative English songs for students to appreciate or learn to sing. It is an effective method in the teaching of English cultural knowledge to analyze the content of the lyrics and music rhythm feelings. And then the students can accept the cultural baptism. For example, a song has a lyric like “Love is blue.”(Blue love). Then what representation is “blue” in English? It often expressed "frustration and anxiety". Teachers cited examples to analyze, and then asked students to appreciate this song, try to see if there are any new experiences.
(5) Foreign festivals on the campus
This activity is of great interest to young students. The celebration could take place in a class, a grade or the whole school with the help of the branch of the Youth League. All kinds of activities can be held in festivals, such as performance of foreign songs, dancing and dramas, holding costume parties, watching foreign films, attending lectures given by foreign experts and enjoying foreign food. By celebrating foreign festivals, learners will immerse in the target cultural context. Teachers are to give introduction on the origin and the conventional activities of the festival. A comparison of the similarities and differences between the foreign festivals and Chinese festivals can develop the learners’ cultural awareness.
(6) Using authentic materials
Obviously, the best way to learn foreign cultural background knowledge is to go to that country to stay there for a period of time. But we know that it is almost impossible to have such an opportunity, especially for our students. Therefore, it is practically necessary for the teachers to use authentic materials to teach culture.
Mass media, such as, film, novels and especially newspapers and magazines, is also considered as an insightful means for teaching culture, for they reflect people’s way of life in terms of variety contemporaneity and authenticity. Students in an ELF setting will spontaneously ask questions about puzzling aspects of society and life as reflected in the film or magazine. This material is by no means easy to interpret because there is so much central inference and it requires deep familiarity with and comprehensive exegeses of the culture in question. Therefore “all such material should be selected with an eye to the subculture diversity of the target community”.
5. Conclusion
Today, international cultural exchange is going on directly and indirectly, with its new scope, content, form and method unheard of before. To confine oneself to one’s own culture is to go against the times. Now, in our country, the open policy towards the rest of the world has become a fundamental policy. This policy has brought about much broader prospects for international cultural exchange. Therefore, overcoming cultural barriers has become more and more important. Only by surmounting the barriers can we get a high degree of cultural exchange, make use of good things from other cultures and build up our cultural and material wealth. This exchange will contribute to understanding and friendship among nations as well as development in science and culture.
In the practical teaching, the culture teaching should be presented as many detailed as possible in the teaching syllabus. The teaching materials should not be located only in the source culture and should be a constructive attempt to be explicit about intercultural behavior and communication, especially, in view of the limited language available at this level. Besides, in the classroom ELF oral teaching, teachers are expected to use a variety of teaching methods that are suitable to students’ level. In intercultural communication settings, Chinese learners in culture instruction should keep an open mind: we should try to avoid the prejudiced culture stereotypes over the other cultures and our own. Especially, we should put higher focus on the learning of our own Chinese culture. Another key point is becoming awareness of our own culture bottom lines. We must learn what our own culture line is ― the values where we are can negotiate, but we cannot compromise. We can allow others to be different, and respect their differences as they respect ours.
Though the culture teaching is a very complicated and difficult part to deal with, the educators and teachers involved in language education should make great efforts to carry out this part thoroughly. This determines much whether the effective cross-cultural communication can be preceded smoothly between China and the world.
Acknowledgements
My initial thanks go to my supervisor Meng Dong, who patiently supervised my dissertation and was at times very willing to offer me illuminating advice or suggestions. Without her help, I could not have finished this dissertation.
I am also indebted to other teachers and my classmates who have not only offered me their warm encouragements but also shared with me their ideas and books. They are Han Xiaoya, Shen Yin and many others.
And I also appreciate Li Neng, who offer me great help during the time I was in the practice in Ning Bo Chai Qiao middle school. Without her help, I could not finish my survey in this paper.
The remaining weakness and possible errors of the dissertation are entirely my own.
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AppendixⅠ
*Questionnaire:
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
1) The cultivation of English skills(reading, writing, speaking and listening) is the foundation of the language learning
2) Reading English novels everyday is necessary
3) It is important to acquire a good knowledge of native language in foreign language learning
4) The accumulation of language and cross-cultural competence are of equal importance
5) It is necessary to read materials regularly about politics, economy, culture, and so on
6) You have the interest and passion in the ELF oral learning
7) You would prefer to get an English-related job after graduation
8) The present classroom teaching can cultivate your learning ability and improve your cross-cultural skills
9) You hope to have English class in various forms such as discussion, presentation, debate, performance and so on.
誠 信 承 諾
我謹在此承諾：本人所寫的畢業論文《論中學英語口語教學中跨文化交際能力的培養》均系本人獨立完成，沒有抄襲行為，凡涉及其他作者的觀點和材料，均作了注釋，若有不實，后果由本人承擔。
承諾人（簽名）：
