序言：寫作是分享個人見解和探索未知領域的橋梁，我們為您精選了8篇的營銷制度樣本，期待這些樣本能夠為您提供豐富的參考和啟發，請盡情閱讀。

第1篇

關鍵詞：醫藥營銷；執業制度；注冊

藥品是人們用以防病治病、康復保健的特殊商品，它既是 商品又不同于一般商品。目前，人們將從事醫藥銷售人員稱之 為醫藥代表。在西方國家，醫藥代表這一職業至少已有上百年 歷史，國內的醫藥代表最初也是來自改革開放后進人中國市場 的外國醫藥企業及其合資企業，由于外資、合資企業中的醫藥 代表非常有效地促進了企業產品的推廣和銷售業績的增長，隨 后，國內醫藥企業開始紛紛效仿。我國各地也陸續出現了這一 新職業―――醫藥代表，而與之相對應的管理規范卻嚴重缺乏和 滯后.

以英國為代表的西方發達國家，已對從事藥品銷售的人員 實施了認證管理，有著較為嚴格的準入門檻.

我國外商投資企業協會藥品研制和開發行業委員會（簡稱 RDPAC）、38家跨國制藥會員公司在全體會員公司中全面推廣 “RDPAC醫藥代表內部認證項目”，并于2006年制定新的“藥 品推廣行為準則”，旨在建立行業自律和防控醫藥商業賄賂的 長效機制。2003年，RDPAC開始對英國、日本和香港的相關認 證項目進行研究。在借鑒這些國家和地區現有經驗的基礎上， 2004年RDPAC醫藥代表內部認證項目正式立項，確定了“醫 藥代表內部認證項目”的初步框架。由于發達國家和我國在醫 療衛生保障體系以及公共事務管理方面有較大差別，因此其管 理模式只起到借鑒和引導的作用。而我國外資企業建立的“醫 藥代表內部認證項目”牽涉的企業同我國17 000家醫療企業相 比，所占比重非常小。加之企業內部監督不具有強制力，在現有 國情下很難發揮較大作用。因此，應建立以政府主導的行業自 律的醫藥注冊認證模式.

目前，我國醫藥營銷行業從業人員良莠不齊、文化程度偏 低、法律觀念淡漠、職業道德觀念不強。針對醫藥營銷行業存在 的問題，國家食品藥品監督管理局（簡稱食藥監局）應建立市場 準入制度，從認證入手，加強醫藥營銷行業管理，提高我國醫藥 營銷行業的業務水平和職業道德修養，規范醫藥營銷行業行為，維護消費者權益，使我國醫藥營銷行業逐步走上規范有序、 公開統一的健康發展軌道，并建立符合我國國情的醫藥營銷人 員執業資格考試制度和醫藥營銷人員誠信保障體系等.

1建立醫藥營銷人員執業資格考試制度 應通過執業資格考試制度這一準入門檻，提高醫藥營銷行 業從業人員素質.

1.1考試組織和內容 醫藥營銷人員資格考試實行全國統一大綱、統一命題、統 一組織的考試制度。原則上每年舉辦1次。內容包括：中國醫藥 衛生概述、醫療機構組成和現狀、制藥工業概述、基礎醫學、臨 床醫學藥理學、藥品推廣行為準則和相關法律、法規[1]。相關部、 局負責編制醫藥營銷人員執業資格考試大綱并組織命題等工 作，組織執業資格的考前培訓。同時負責審定醫藥營銷人員執 業資格考試科目、考試大綱和考試試題，組織實施考務工作，并 對醫藥營銷人員執業資格考試進行檢查、監督、指導和確定合 格標準。執業資格考試合格的，由省、自治區、直轄市人事部門 頒發人事部統一印制，人事部、食藥監局用印《中華人民共和國 醫藥營銷執業資格證書》，該證書全國范圍內有效.

1.2執業資格考試報名條件 相關部門可以借鑒執業藥師考試設定報名條件，如相關學 科、學歷、從事相關專業年限等，對從業人員進行條件和準入的 規范.

1.3醫藥營銷行業執業人員注冊制度 國家對醫藥營銷人員實行準入制度，凡取得《中華人民共 和國醫藥營銷執業資格證書》的人員必須經過注冊才能從事醫 藥營銷活動。對執業資格注冊規定年限，在注冊有效屆滿需要 繼續從事醫藥營銷活動的，可按規定的程序換發新證書。對違 反相關規定的采取收回、注銷等手段規范醫藥營銷人員執業行 為.

2建立醫藥營銷人員誠信檔案體系 建立失信懲戒機制，提高醫藥營銷人員失信成本，是醫藥 營銷人員誠信體系的重要一環。誠信檔案，就是把醫藥營銷人 員個人在履行職責和社會生活等方面的個人誠信信息匯集起 來，進行整理存儲，從而形成個人的誠信資料。醫藥營銷人員的 個人誠信信息將與履行誠信信息一起納入檔案記錄和考評范 圍。誠信檔案主要由醫藥營銷人員個人基本信息、履行職責誠 信信息和社會誠信信息3部分構成，總的思路是以履職誠信為 主、社會誠信為輔。建立醫藥營銷人員誠信檔案應由政府的專 門部門牽頭，組織有關部門收集、整理其誠信信息，全面、準確、 及時記錄醫藥營銷人員的行為活動。醫藥營銷人員誠信檔案對 加強醫藥營銷人員誠信建設有重要作用。在美國，某人一旦有 嚴重的誠信缺失行為，就被記錄在案，他從事任何活動都會受 到影響，可謂終生損失巨大[2]。西方發達國家的實踐證明，建立 個人誠信檔案是一項約束個人行為及個人進行自我約束的有 效制度。我國國內一些地方政府也先后采取不同的措施和手段 在建設醫藥營銷人員誠信檔案方面進行探索、實踐.

2.1醫藥營銷人員誠信檔案的構成 醫藥營銷人員誠信檔案是醫藥營銷行業信用的重要組成 部分。主要內容包括：執業人員基本情況、良好行為與不良行為 記錄、業績匯總、繼續教育情況、能力表現、投訴情況等.

2.2醫藥營銷人員誠信檔案的管理 隨著網絡的發展，可將醫藥營銷人員誠信檔案與有關部門 的信息系統互聯互通，從同業征信向聯合征信過渡，實現信息 共享，以更加全面地反映醫藥營銷人員的誠信狀況.

（1）管理原則。醫藥營銷人員誠信檔案按照“統一規劃、分 級建設、分步實施、信息共享”的原則進行，逐步實現醫藥營銷 行業誠信檔案系統覆蓋全行業的目標。各級醫藥營銷行業主管 部門負責組織所轄區內執業人員誠信檔案系統的建設和管理 工作.

（2）組織實施。食藥監局組織建立一級執業人員誠信檔案 系統。各省食藥監局負責一級執業人員誠信檔案的日常管理工 作，包括有關誠信信息的征集、登記、審核、更新及管理等工作， 提供網上誠信信息查詢服務；并負責起草相關的誠信信息管理 制度，包括信息征集、使用和更新的規則與方法，信息公示的內 容、范圍和保留時限，投訴信息的處理辦法等.

（3）信息采集。誠信檔案信息依法從多種途徑采集，充分利 用現有信息資源，從政府部門、醫藥營銷行業等多種途徑獲得， 并與機構資質、年檢制度及專業人員執業資格注冊工作有機結 合。不良行為記錄，除要求醫藥營銷行業自報外，各級食藥監局 也應及時報送醫藥營銷人員的違法處理情況，醫藥營銷人員誠 信檔案將按規定予以公示.

醫藥營銷人員獲省級表彰或榮譽稱號，也可作為良好行為 記錄載入執業人員的誠信檔案。良好行為記錄由醫藥營銷行業 采集或執業人員直接報送.

醫藥營銷人員出現違反醫藥營銷的相關法律、法規的行 為，并受到處罰的，即可將不良行為載入該執業人員的誠信檔 案。不良行為記錄以營銷行業組織報送為主，記入檔案視情節 收回或注銷執業資格證書.

（4）信息維護和更新。醫藥營銷人員誠信檔案是由政府組織建立的，由系統管理部門對信息進行收集和更新。對涉及企 業商業秘密的信息要注意保密，實行授權查詢；未經核實的信 息不得在網上公示；不良記錄在公示前，必須經過嚴格的審核 批準程序.

（5）投訴處理。醫藥營銷人員誠信檔案系統專門設立了網 上投訴欄目，社會公眾可以在網上對執業人員違法、違紀行為 進行投訴，社會公眾可按統一格式提交有關醫藥營銷方面的投 訴。系統管理部門對收到的信息進行登記、整理、分類，并根據 被投訴對象和投訴內容，轉交有關行政部門進行審核、處理，或 轉給被投訴機構進行處理。醫藥營銷行業對系統管理部門轉去 的投訴在15天內反饋意見。無正當理由未按時反饋的，將在網 上公示投訴情況。此外，還要公示對違法、違規行為的

整改結 果。如要撤銷公示，須由被公示單位或人員申請，經相關行政主 管部門同意，方可從網上撤銷；不良行為記錄分類在醫藥營銷 人員誠信檔案中保留一定期限.

（6）信息查詢。按照依法、合理保護企業商業秘密和分類、 分級管理原則，醫藥營銷人員誠信檔案可分為公示信息和授權 查詢信息兩大類.

2.3誠信檔案管理的具體要求 （1）為了保證建立醫藥營銷人員誠信檔案工作的順利進行， 需要有正確的理論作指導，要認真總結檔案管理工作的經驗.

此項任務是一個標準化的體系，在具體操作中，絕非一個檔案 部門所能承擔的，應由醫藥營銷人員管理部門來研究和牽頭運 作，各相關部門相互配合，并且要有現代技術的支持。具體內容 包括：個人誠信信息的收集、登記、評價、考核和誠信信息資源 的共享、誠信檔案管理、誠信等級認證等.

（2）對醫藥營銷人員誠信信息的記錄采用以“0”為基準的 正負分記錄方式，實行等級制，分優秀、良好、一般、較差4個等 級.

（3）保證醫藥營銷人員個人誠信檔案信息的公開、透明。信 息既向本人公開，也向廣大群眾公開，讓醫藥營銷人員的誠信 受到社會廣大群眾的監督。有關授權單位和個人可以在規定范 圍內查詢醫藥營銷人員誠信檔案，醫藥營銷人員對有異議的個 人誠信信息可以提出申請，誠信檔案管理部門按照一定程序進 行更正.

（4）要有針對性的對醫藥營銷人員誠信情況進行跟蹤考察， 并將考察結果反饋給專門的誠信檔案管理部門，使之能定期對 醫藥營銷人員誠信檔案信息進行更新.

（5）在誠信檔案中根據醫藥營銷人員個人實際情況，追加 提示信息和警示信息。提示信息和警示信息可對出現非誠信行 為傾向的醫藥營銷人員起到提示和警示的作用.

以上探討建立我國醫藥營銷人員執業資格考試制度及從 業人員個人誠信檔案制度的個人見解，主要是從政策層面規范 醫藥營銷人員執業行為，包括制定醫藥營銷人員的準入制度、 加強醫藥營銷人員誠信檔案的管理等。要全面提高醫藥營銷人 員的執業素質，還應加強其職業道德與職業修養.

第2篇

關鍵詞：藥品；營銷渠道；渠道聯盟

在中國的大部分藥品營銷渠道中，藥品制造商、批發商和零售商之間是一種松散的合作關系，各自為政，各行其是，每個渠道成員都追求自己的利潤最大化，整個渠道效率低下。在當前激烈的市場競爭中，醫藥企業僅靠自身力量與競爭對手單打獨斗已經很難取勝，因此，醫藥企業要通過制度的創新，與中間商的密切合作，形成渠道聯盟，鍛造供銷價值鏈，以獲得競爭優勢。本文將新制度經濟學的相關理論應用于藥品營銷渠道的研究中，對藥品營銷渠道的制度創新進行探討。

一、渠道聯盟是一種新的制度安排

新制度經濟學發端于科斯，科斯在1937年發表的《企業的性質》一文中認為，“企業與市場是經濟組織制度的兩極”。科斯引入交易成本作為分析工具，認為企業選擇不同制度安排的基本依據是交易成本。企業和市場在資源配置中都有其運行的成本，企業存在內部管理成本，而市場則存在交易成本。如果利用市場方式協調組織間關系的交易成本大于利用一體化組織的內部管理成本時，為了減少交易成本，就會出現一體化的企業，反之，則傾向于市場這一制度安排。企業和市場這兩種制度安排可以互相替代。

威廉姆森認為，企業進行不同制度安排的目的在于使生產成本和交易成本最小化，各種制度的安排與經濟績效之間存在一定的關系。他運用了交易成本這一分析工具，從非確定性、交易頻率和資產專用性這三個維度變量進行論證并發展了科斯的企業理論。他認為，市場的出現是不確定性小、交易頻率和資產專用性低的結果，而當這些變量均處于高水平時，企業成為了有效的協調方式。在市場與企業之間，還存在著一些中間組織形態。隨后，拉森認為在市場和企業之間還存在著雙邊、多邊和混合的中間組織的交易形式，提出了“三極制度框架”，即市場—網絡組織—企業，并綜合了斯密和錢德勒將市場與企業隱喻為“看不見的手”與“看得見的手”的觀點，將網絡組織稱為“握手”，網絡組織也隨之成為企業間經濟活動的一種制度安排。目前，關于網絡組織還沒有統一的定義，網絡組織的含義比較廣泛，包含了各組織間以合作關系構成的各種群體。其中，戰略聯盟是網絡組織中比較常見的一種形式，邁克爾·波特認為，“聯盟是指企業之間進行長期合作，它超越了正常的市場交易但又未達到合并的程度。聯盟的方式包括技術許可生產、供應協定、營銷協定和合資企業。聯盟無須擴大企業規模而可以擴展企業市場邊界”。而渠道戰略聯盟就是制造商與中間商之間的一種合作形式，也屬于協調組織之間經濟活動的一種制度安排。

從渠道理論的發展來看，在經歷了20世紀初以效率和效益為重心對渠道結構的研究，以及20世紀60年代以權力和沖突為主對渠道行為的研究之后，以聯盟為主題來研究渠道關系成為渠道理論研究的重點。西方營銷學者們認為，由于營銷渠道是一個聯合體，各成員為實現自身的目標，存在著利益之爭，渠道成員間合作常以失敗而告終，為此渠道戰略聯盟等關系形式應運而生，建立渠道聯盟能夠解決渠道內和渠道所面臨的一些問題，并使各成員獲得更多利潤，增強他們在市場中的競爭優勢。20世紀90年代以后，以奧德森、顧萊惕、貝克爾和斯特恩為代表一些西方營銷學家對渠道關系和渠道聯盟進行了研究，其研究認為，企業應選擇具有互補能力的企業作為建立聯盟的對象，因為渠道成員能從聯盟中獲取更多利潤并保持持續的競爭優勢，所以不同渠道層次的成員應努力構建和增進渠道內的聯盟，渠道聯盟的實質是承諾和信任。渠道聯盟正在成為渠道創新的方向。因此，本文認為，在藥品營銷渠道中，從制度層面進行創新主要是構建藥品渠道聯盟，企業可以建立橫向渠道聯盟和縱向渠道聯盟。

二、建立藥品渠道聯盟

第3篇

【關鍵詞】改革穩定；管理滯后；營銷問題及解決

隨著改革開放，經濟制度的不斷改革，電力企業自負盈虧的政策出臺后，對于縣級供電企業而言，電力營銷管理是必要的管理手段，涉及到電力企業的生存和發展。提高電力營銷管理水平，對于提高企業的經濟效益具有重要作用。因此，本文針對電力營銷進行探討。

一、對制約供電營銷方面存在的問題進行探討

落后的電網設備是供電企業營銷裹足不前的一個主要原因；體制改革不盡快切中要害，延誤了企業經營實體的形成，影響了企業的發展和效益的提高；營銷管理粗放，手段單一，是企業開拓市場不足、缺乏竟爭力的主要原因；營銷配電管理自動化水平低、科技含量少，新技術、新產品的應用率不高，致使運營管理成本高，勞動生產率低，效益不高的主要原因；以及人員安于現狀，無竟爭意識、風險意識和危機意識，仍然存在著計劃經濟體制下形成壟斷經營管理的優越感，小富即安，觀念陳舊、行政管理不適應市場發展的要求等。

二、營銷制度改進措施

（一）改革前企業組織管理模式概述。生產技術部為職能部室，主要負責主網的生產技術管理，下設有調度室、變電工區、檢修工區、三個地區性供電所共6個二級機構，負責管轄區域內輸、變、配設備的運行檢修等工作；變電工區同時承擔了屬地110kV變電站運行代管的職責。營銷部為職能部室，主要負責電力營銷和低壓配網管理，下設電力客戶服務中心（電費管理中心）、農電工區2個二級機構。電力客戶服務中心負責所轄區域內用戶的營銷業務工作；農電工區及下屬11個供電營業所承擔農村綜合變0.4千伏及以下用電營銷、低壓配電網的運行維護等工作。

（二）措施，加強營銷管理，挖掘內部潛力，為拓展電力市場奠定基礎。

1. 要從重生產管理轉變到重經營管理。電力企業同其它企業一樣，把追求利潤的最大化作為企業經營目標。不能為了生產而生產，為了安全而安全，不論是生產管理還是經營管理，都是手段而不是目的。所以，要從營銷、資本、資金管理等方面采取有利于提高企業經濟效益的管理方法和激勵約束機制，全方位地開展經營管理。

2. 有必要進行用電行業的重新分類，我國現行用電分類是1976年頒布的，目前執行過程中與電力市場的發展極不適應，因為產業層出不窮，原行業經過多年發展演變、改革重組，與原來的用電分類不相吻合，應盡快進行合理科學的行業分類，作為科學定價和市場營銷的依據。

3. 發揮價格杠桿作用，優化資源配置。在原電價體系中，政策性分類電價比重太大，兩部制電價中基本電價比重偏小，且實施范圍小，造成電力部門投資回收周期長。為體現公平、合理分攤電力成本，要科學定價，并且本著國家有利、企業有益、客戶滿意的原則，在電價執行中發揮彈性杠桿作用。在國家宏觀調控指導下和當地物價部門的監管下，適當地由企業靈活執行，有益于促銷。

4. 注重做好企業基礎工作。客戶報裝接電、建卡立戶，日常的抄表、收費，計量監督、檢查，是供電企業營銷工作內部完成的一些具體內容。往往由于這些日常工作不慎重，給企業造成經濟損失，形象聲譽受損，甚至發生營業事故，與客戶產生糾紛。所以，要抓好管理，苦練內功，嚴格規章制度的執行，杜絕事故，減少差錯，形成高效的服務，增強客戶對企業的信任感。

（三）規范服務，營造出供電企業營銷的新概念。

1. 必要的廣告是供電企業和客戶溝通的橋梁，特別是公益性廣告作為供電企業應多投入。如：就安全用電、合理經濟用電、電力設施的保護，結合兩改一同價工作做一些公益宣傳。

2. 供電企業建立電力需求引導展廳。主要開展用電咨詢服務，可就用電如何規劃、如何安裝、日常維護注意哪些問題等介紹給客戶；開展電力產品及電器產品演示、展銷，假冒劣質產品陳列等，給客戶提供電力銷售全方位、多視角的咨詢、服務。

3. 取消用電申請，將電力客戶與供電企業的供需關系完全平等起來，擺正服務與被服務的關系，真正做到客戶一個電話，剩下的事由我們來做的服務。

4. 免費給客戶提供用電規劃、設計、材料計劃、資金預算等服務。

做好以上幾點的同時，企業的營銷服務一定要規范，包括機構的設置，規章制度的建立，人員的行為以及舉止用語等，樹立起一個全新的企業形象。

（四）應用新技術，實現營銷現代化管理，降低成本，提高效益。電力工業做為技術密集型產業，科技含量較高，然而供電企業在配網的管理方面仍然較為落后，開關跳閘、線路短路、接地等故障判斷查尋，還很原始，開關刀閘的投切、運行方式的變更還需人工現場操作。營業抄表人員仍要拿著表卡走訪千家萬戶。工作效率低，運行成本高，經營損耗大，是縣供電企業效益差的主要原因。在近年的農網改造工程中，采用的新技術、新產品還是很少，科技應用沒有滲透其中，建議能否考慮首先從縣城配網開始逐步推廣，加大科技投入，推廣和應用先進的營銷管理手段。

五、夯實生產經營基礎建設，強化營銷信息監控管理

加強供電生產經營管理基礎工作的重點主要在基層。基層是供電生產經營管理工作的重要載體，其工作水平的高低直接影響供電管理整體工作水平的質量。縣級供電企業領導對此要予以高度重視，切實加強對供電生產經營管理基礎工作的組織領導，下大力氣，長抓不懈。以求真務實的工作作風、科學嚴謹的工作態度，深入細致地開展工作，把供電生產經營管理基礎工作扎扎實實做好。

（六）堅持依法治企，全面提升服務水平。依法治企的首要和根本問題就是供用電雙方的關系問題，是生產經營管理的基礎和前提。貫徹落實依法治企，要從觀念、機制、環境三個方面入手，從根本上進一步鞏固依法治企成果，優化供電服務。強化意識。牢固樹立依法治企觀念，始終堅持“有法必依，管理必嚴、違法必究”的治企原則，堅持“內外并舉、重在治內，以內促外”的工作方針。健全機制。努力構建科學、嚴密、高效、規范的生產經營新機制，不斷提高管理水平。營造氛圍。認真落實“加強咨詢輔導，優化辦電服務，全面落實公開辦電”等規定外。

三、措施整體思路

現代經濟發展方式方式既要求從粗放型增長轉變為集約型增長，又要求從通常的增長轉變為全面、協調、可持續的發展。電力發展也是一樣。

因此，電力營銷以“管理集約化、機構扁平化、作業專業化”為原則，結合企業實際，對全局生產、營銷組織模式進行優化和整合，變革組織模式，以構建功能合理、整體協調、運轉高效的組織體系。

四、結語

近年來，縣級供電企業基礎管理工作雖然取得了較好的成績，但實際工作中其存在的弊端也日益暴露出來。隨著“三集五大”運行機制改革及SG186營銷系統上線運行，供電企業必須扎扎實實做好基礎管理和基層建設，把各項供電管理工作落到實處。如何審時度勢，提高認識，明確目標和要求，促進整個供電管理工作再上新臺階。

參考文獻：

第4篇

［摘要］營銷渠道研究是營銷研究的一個重要組成部分。隨著市場中競爭性環境的變化以及營銷理論的發展，營銷渠道研究的關注點從強調效率和利益轉向強調權力和沖突，進而轉向聯網以及關系和聯盟。在研究渠道治理過程方面，以往的營銷渠道研究大多采用以效率為基礎的任務環境視角，而在很大程度上忽視了以合理性為基礎的制度環境方法。本文提出，營銷渠道從本質上說是一種制度安排和跨組織關系。因此，企業在治理營銷渠道時，必須關注其決策和行為的接受度與認可度。本文先是回顧了營銷渠道治理和跨組織關系方面的理論與研究，進而從中吸收有價值的觀點，提出了理論框架和一些命題，并通過兩則案例研究進行解釋和檢驗。

［Key words］Marketing Channels ;Inter-Organizational Power；The In stitutional Environment

［關鍵詞］營銷渠道；跨組織能力；制度環境

［中圖分類號］F712［文獻標識碼］A［文章編號］1005-6432（2014）5-0008-10

1INTRODUCTION

Wilkinson(2001)divides studies about marketing channels into three stages：channel structures，channel behaviors，and channel relationships.In the first stage，researchers tried to find out ways of optimizing the efficiencies and benefits of managing marketing channels.In the second stage，researchers tried to unveil the power and conflict between channel members.In the third stage，researchers tried to find out ways of reducing or eliminating opportunistic behaviors through mutual commitment and honest.Actually，some scholars had begun to study marketing channels from the perspective of network governance.

In most of these studies，many scholars have used the political economy framework(Achrol，Reve and Stern，1983；Frazier，1999；Hutt，Mokwa and Shapiro，1986，Stern and Reve，1980).Scholars implicitly have ascribed active choice behavior to channel members while stressing efficiency in governing channel relationships.They have considered the implications of environmental uncertainty or dependence on environmental resources for dyadic channel relationships(such as conflicts and cooperation，Dwyer，Schurr and Oh，1987)，power balances(such as power-dependence relationships，Frazier，1983)，and relationships with entities outside the dyads(such as regulators and other actors，Dutta，Heide and Bergen，1999)from traditional economic efficiency perspectives.In the process，scholars have largely overlooked the ubiquitous influences of the institutional environments and how inter-organizational relationships such as marketing channels are embedded in the larger social context(Granovetter，1985；Grewal & Dharwadkar，2002).Recent advances in organization theory suggest that organizations strive for both economic fitness，which emphasizes the competition for scarce resources and underscores the importance of the task environment，and social fitness，which stresses the pursuit of legitimacy in the eyes of important societal stakeholders and pinpoint the significance of the institutional environment.

The term governance has been broadly defined as a “mode of organizing transactions”(Williamson and Ouchi，1981).A more precise delineation was offered by Palay(1984)，who defines it as “a shorthand expression of the institutional framework in which contracts are initiated，negotiated，monitored，modified and terminated.” Heide(1994)states that governance is a multidimensional phenomenon that encompasses the initiation，termination and ongoing relationship maintenance between a set of parties.

In this paper，the authors propose that marketing channels are inter-organizational relationships in the nature.When companies are governing marketing channels，they are actually governing inter-organizational relationships.This is an institutional process.The primary measuring standard of the governing effects is legitimacy，but not the traditional efficiency.

2THEORETICAL BACKGROUNDS AND MODELInstitutional theory holds that a companys institutional environment is made up of the norms and values of its stakeholders，which include customers，investors，guilds，trustee councils，governments，and partners.According to institutional theory，a company adopts some structure，behavior or process to satisfy other stakeholders.This behavior of seeking external recognition is the result of the institutional environments influence.Therefore，legitimacy becomes a key concept in institutional theory.

Suchman(1995)“a generalized assumption or perception of the actions of an entity are desirable，proper，and appropriate within some socially constructed norms，values，beliefs and definitions.” Legitimacy requires companies behaviors to be consistent with public cognition and emotional expectations.That is，companies will adopt those structures，behaviors，and processes that are considered as effective，appropriate，and popular.Accordingly，companies are not rationally pursuing efficiency but conforming to external rules and norms，so as to make their behaviors be accepted，understood，and recognized by other stakeholders.Therefore，gaining legitimacy is of great importance to companies that operate within the institutional environment.In order to gain legitimacy，many aspects of organizational structures and behaviors are designed and performed to be accepted by the institutional environment but not to pursue efficiency.

Marketing channels governance is a part of a companys operations.The decisions，behaviors，and processes of governing channels must be consistent with the companys strategy.They all have to be accepted，understood，and recognized by other stakeholders.This is an institutionalized process.Therefore，gaining legitimacy of their channel-governing decisions，behaviors，and processes is also of great importance.Market channel wont be one of the sources of sustained competitive advantages if the decisions，behaviors，and process are not legitimate.

2.1Inter-Organizational Studies

Inter-Organizational institutions

Institutional theory insists that we should study organizations environments so as to better study and understand companies behaviors and explain organizational phenomena(Meyer & Rowen，1977).Institutional theory divides environments into institutional environments and task environment，which have different influence on anizations should take into account the task environment and the institutional environment as well，since organizations are always influenced by the institutional environments and they are institutionalized organizations.Institutional theory stresses that organizations are able to take initiatives to change their environments so as to better survive and develop.According to institutional theory，a company is operating within a social framework of norms and values.Their economic behaviors are constrained by technology，information，income，and social constructs as well.Being consistent with social expectations is beneficial to their survival and successes(Baum and Oliver，1991；Carroll and Hannan，1989；DiMaggio and Powell，1983；Oliver，1991).Organizations improve their legitimacy，resources，and surviving capabilities through following up so as to gain benefits.

2.2Inter-Organizational Imitations

Inter-organizational imitation of practices and structures plays a central role in several theories of organizational actions(Haunschild，1993).For example，theories of organizational learning argue that organizations copy other organizations，letting others absorb the costs of experimentation or discovery(Dutton & Freedman，1985；Levitt & March，1988；Lant & Mezias，1990).Strategic choice theories suggest that imitation can be a strategic response to competitor activities，so second-movers take the advantages of the fact that the risks associated with product development have been absorbed by first-movers(Lieberman & Montgomery，1988).Institutionalization theory argues that organizations copy practices that adopted by others in an effort to gain legitimacy(DiMaggio & Powell，1983).

It is self-evident that inter-organizational imitations are of great importance.But how do organizations imitate？ Haunschild & Miner(1997)indicate three modes of inter-organizational imitation，including frequency-based imitation，trait-based imitation，and outcome-based imitation.With frequency-based imitation，organizations tend to imitate actions that have been taken by large numbers of other organizations.Several theoretical rationales have been marshaled to support frequency imitation，and considerable empirical evidence documents its occurrence.According to early institutionalresearch，firms adopt practices and structures that many other firms have adopted because when many firms adopt a practice，the legitimacy of that practice is enhanced(Tolbert and Zucker，1983；DiMaggio and Powell，1983).This effect can occur because the desire for legitimacy leads firms to adopt legitimate practices(Meyer and Rowan，1977).In trait-based imitation，organizations may also selectively imitate practices that have been used by some subset of other organizations.Arguments for trail imitation have generally emphasized the importance of social processes.Early institutional theorists(e.g.，DiMaggio and Powell，1983)suggested that firms adopt the practices of “legitimate” organizations and that legitimacy is inferred from traits like large size and anizations may also seek to acquire status by imitating higher-status organizations(Fombrun and Shanley，1990)，which are usually large and successful.With outcome-based imitation，organizations use the outcomes that occur after other organizations use a practice or structure to determine whether they should adopt.Thus，neither the number nor the characteristics of others doing practice “A” is important.Instead，it is the apparent outcomes that occur after other organizations do “A” that determines whether “A” will be imitated.Practices or structures that produced positive outcomes for others will be imitated；those that produced negative outcomes will be avoided.Selective imitation does not arise from features of other users but from perceived consequences of the panies are not limited to only one of the three modes.During the competition，the imitation mode they will apply varies with their competitors and decisions.

2.3Inter-Organizational Power and Dependence

The most comprehensive theoretical statement on inter-organizational power and dependence was a 1978 book by Pfeffer and Salancik，which presented a detailed theoretical discussion as well as the results of a number of the authors earlier empirical works.Pfeffer and Salancik began with four key premises：organizations are first and foremost concerned with survival；in order to survive they require resources which they cannot generate internally；as a consequence，organizations must interact with elements in the environment on which they are depend，which often include other organizations；survival is therefore based on an organizations manage its relations with other organizations.Because organizations depend on elements in their environment for resources，those groups can make claims on them，and organizations may find themselves attempting to satisfy the concerns of these environmental constituencies.According to Pfeffer and Salancik，there are three crucial factors that determine to which one organization depends on another：the importance of the resource to the organizations survival，the extent to which a particular group inside or outside the organization has access to or discretion over use of the resource，and the extent to which alternative sources of the resource exist.

One important feature of Pfeffer and Salanciks discussion is their point that dependence can be mutual.Just as one organization can depend on another，two organizations can simultaneously depend on each other.Power becomes unequal when one organizations dependence exceeds the others.

3CONCLUSION

In order to survive organizations should first be recognized by other organizations or stakeholders.That means they should acquire legitimacy first.Only after acquiring legitimacy can organizations create efficiency through operating resources they obtained from their interaction with the task environment and facilitate organizations sustained development.Therefore，organizations should first consider the legitimacy of their decisions，behaviors，and processes in their operations，and then pursue efficiency.In this way，organizations can survive and develop in the long run.

Since late 1990s，some scholars have begun to elaborate and argue the institutional environments influences(Handelman and Arnold，1999；Homburg，Workman，and Krohmer，1999；McFarland，Bloodgood，and Payan，2004).Grewal and Dharwadkar(2002)indicate that the institutional environment influences the channel attitudes，behaviors，processes，and structures.They proposed a theoretical framework and logic for studying the institutional environments influence on dyadic channel relationships.They developed three institutional processes(regulating，validating，and habitualizing)and their underlying mechanisms according to the various attributes of the institutions and legitimacies，and elaborate on how these processes might influence channel relationships.Reacting to Grewal and Dharwadkars calling for empirical studies on the institutional environment in marketing channels，McFarland，Bloodgood，and Payan(2004)applied institutional theory to examine channel reaction behaviors in supply chains，attempting to explain why fellow channel members imitate one anothers behaviors.The study explains how the institutional environment influence channel behaviors and processes.They argued that institutional isomorphism can provide a rationale for the take-for-granted channel behaviors，which are not able to be explained with economic rationality.

FIGURE 1ORGANIZATIONS SURVIVAL AND DEVELOPMENT

INSTITUTIONAL PERSPECTIVES ON MARKETING CHANNEL GOVERNANCE

In order to study the roles of the institutional environment in marketing channels，we should first know what the institutional environment in marketing channels is.Based on institutional theory(Meyer & Rowan，1977；DiMaggio & Powell，1983；Scott，1987)，we divide institutions into regulatory institutions，normative institutions，and cognitive institutions.We can describe the rules，expectations，and habitual behaviors by dividing the three institutions(Scott & Meyer，1983).But the power and acting space the organizations get are double-edged and locked-in.On the one hand，organizations must conform to rules，expectations，and habitual behaviors required by the institutional environment，which might be a constraint.On the other hand，organizations can tactically use the institutional environment as a resource and an entry barrier as well.Therefore，the institutional environment might be an extraordinary competitive advantage.

3.1Legitimacy in Marketing Channels

In the past decades，sociologists have offered a number of definitions of legitimacy.Pfeffer and his colleagues stressed that legitimacy is an evaluation，but highlighted cultural conformity rather than overt self-justification(Downing & Pfeffer，1975；Pfeffer，1981；Pfeffer & Salancik，1978).In this view，legitimacy connotes “congruence between the social values associated with or implied by organizational activities and the norms of acceptable behavior in the larger social context”(Downing & Pfeffer，1975).Meyer and Scott(Meyer & Scott，1983；Scott，1991)also considered legitimacy as stemming from congruence between the organization and its cultural environment.However，they focused more on the cognitive than the evaluative side(Suchman，1995).Organizations are legitimate when they are understandable，rather than they are desirable.“Organizational legitimacy refers to the extent to which the array of established cultural accounts provide explanations for an organizations existence”(Meyer & Scott，1983b:201；DiMaggio & Powell，1991).Suchmans definition of legitimacy includes the both aspects.He defines legitimacy as “a generalized perception or assumption that the actions of an entity are desirable，proper，or appropriate within some social constructed system of norms，values，attitudes，and definitions”(Suchman，1995).

Our definition of legitimacy in channel governance is based on Suchmans definition.We define channel governance legitimacy as “the extent to which the decisions，behaviors，and processes are accepted and recognized by other stakeholders when they are governing inter-organizational relationships in channels”.

The institutional environment requires legitimate behaviors，so managing legitimacy is of great importance.We argue that managing legitimacy is a dynamic and continuous process(figure 2)，including gaining legitimacy，maintaining legitimacy，and repairing legitimacy(Suchman，1995).Besides，the gained legitimacies are not always effective，since they have lives.When one kind of legitimacy can not satisfy the organizations demand for surviving and developing or a new legitimacy is needed，the organization will begin a new process.Therefore，legitimacy managing is a dynamic and loop process.

FIGURE 2THE DYNAMIC PROCESS OF

MANAGING LEGITIMACY

When evaluating effectiveness and performance of a companys channels structures，behaviors，and processes，we should consider both efficiency，which is influenced by the task environment，and legitimacy that is stressed by institutional theory.An organizations demand for legitimacy is bigger than that for efficiency.Efficiency is only guaranteed in the long run after the organization has gained legitimacy.We can completely understand and explain the process of forming and implementing decisions and explain the problems organizations encounter in channel governance through combining efficiency and legitimacy.The ultimate goal of organizations is not to pursue legitimacy and efficiency，but to gain sustained competitive advantages so as to ensure long-term survival and development(figure 3).

FIGURE 3THE PROCESS OF GAINING SUSTAINED

COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGES

Based on the above discussions，we propose proposition 1 and proposition 2.

H1：Organizations channel governance decisions，behaviors，and processes are embedded in specific institutional environment.The judging standard of channel governance is the extent to which the decisions，behaviors，and processes are accepted and recognized by other stakeholders.The extent determines the possibility of gaining efficiency.

H2：Managing Legitimacy is a dynamic process，during which organizations will apply different strategies to gain，maintain，and repair legitimacy soas to make the extent to which their decisions，behaviors，and processes are accepted and recognized become higher and higher(figure.4).

FIGURE 4JUDGING STANDARD AND OBJECTIVE

OF CHANNEL GOVERNANCE

CHANNEL GOVERNANCE MODEL AND STRATEGY MATRIX

3.2Theoretical Model

Channel governance is a kind of inter-organizational relationship governance in the nature.The fundamental objective of channel governance is to make marketing channel be one of the sources of organizations sustained competitive advantages so as to ensure their long-term survival and development.In order to survive，organizations need to gain efficiency.But it is of more importance that their strategies and behaviors should be anizations should consider long-term benefits as their ultimate objective when they are governing marketing channels.This requires them to apply different governing mechanisms to obtain legitimacy and efficiency.Guo(Guo，Zhan，Hou，Zhou，and Xiao，2004)argued that the sustained competitive advantages gained from channel governance should not only be measured by efficiency，but also be measured by the legitimacy of strategies and behaviors.They expressed the standard as “channel governance efficacy”(figure 5).

FIGURE 5THEORETICAL MODEL FOR CHANNEL GOVERNANCEAll companies are institutionalized ones，whose channel governance decisions and practices are influenced by both the institutional environment and the task environment.With regard to marketing channel governance，the task environment is highly related to uncertainties and dependence an organization encounters，while the institutional environment has an impact on the legitimacy of its decisions，strategies，and practices.Managers should first take into account the demands of both the institutional environment and the task environment when they are governing marketing channels.Then they decide the channel structures and choose appropriate governing mechanisms and strategies to gain legitimacy and efficiency.In the end，they will achieve high channel governance efficacy，making marketing channel a real source of sustained competitive advantages.

Managers should not attempt to reduce uncertainties and dependence at the expense of legitimacy.When managers are trying to increase legitimacy，they are actually reducing the uncertainties and dependence at the same time.Therefore，strategically speaking，managers should reduce uncertainties and dependence in market channels during the institutionalized process of channel governance.

H3：Companies first pursue the legitimacy of channel governance decisions，behaviors，and processes.The higher the legitimacy is，the higher is the possibility of achieving high efficiency.

3.3Channel Governance Strategy Matrix

It may lead to misunderstanding by separate the task environment from the institutional environment in marketing channels，letting believe that the institutional environment and the task environment are independent.But actually，they are not mutually exclusive but concomitant.The two different environments have different impact on marketing channel governance.

Scott(1995)divided both the institutional environment and the task environment into weak and strong and get a two dimensional matrix with four combinations(figure 6).He proposed that different organizations are located on different positions in the matrix.

FIGURE 6CROSS-COMBINATIONS OF THE INSTITUTIONAL

ENVIRONMENT AND THE TASK ENVIRONMENT1

Referring to Scotts Matrix，we propose that organizations belong to different quadrants in different stages of their panies should apply different governing mechanisms and relevant strategies to gain legitimacy and efficiency，so as to improve their channel governance efficacy.

FIGURE 7CHANNEL GOVERNANCE MATRIX

H4：Organizations can apply different combinations of governing mechanisms in accordance with the institutional environment and the task environments influence.

H4.1：When the institutional environments influence is stronger than that of the task environment，organizations should pay more attention to legitimacy mechanisms.

H4.2：When the institutional environments influence is weaker than that of the task environment，organizations should pay more attention to efficiency mechanisms.

4CASE DISCUSSION

In this paper，we conduct a case study to explain our propositions.We study the development of Avon and Amway in China.Since their entry into Chinas market，they have experienced two tremendous changes of Chinas policy.The first change forced to transform their operation patterns.The second one gave them a chance to develop.During the first change，the two companies chose different transforming path.The second change just begins.Our analysis tries to figure out why they chose different transforming paths during the first change and what they should do to deal with they second change，especially what Avon should do to deal with the problems raised by the second change.

4.1Different Transforming Paths

In a response to the policy change，Avon and Amway transformed the operation modes.They both saw the big prospect of China market and wanted to survive and achieve fast development in China.So their operations have to conform to legal requirements and satisfy other stakeholders.After the release of the“Notice on the Relevant Issues concerning Foreign Investment Pyramid Sales Enterprises Change of Sale Modes”，the first thing that both Avon and Amway had to do was to transform their operation modes so as to gain pragmatic legitimacy that is required by legal institutions.Therefore，Avon began to set up counters and stores in Chinas tier-1，tier-2，and tier-3 cities through cooperating with its distributors.Amway set up about 110 counters with its own investment.Avon totally changed its original operation modes and its transformation is considered as a successful example of combining abidance by the rules and market operations.However，Amways transformation is more like temporary compromise.Although Amway set up 110-plus counters according to the Notice，these counters are just Amways outlets.

SCENE 1THE FIRST TRANSFORMINGAvon entered Chinas market in 1990.It applied direct selling as its main distribution channel.Amway entered China in 1995 and it also applied its traditional direct selling to operate its business in Chinas market.However，with the fast development of direct selling in China，some cheating companies rushed out in the name of direct selling.They sold inferior products and were blamed by customers.On April 21 of 1998，China government issued a bill，prohibiting pyramid sales(including direct sales)in China.On June 18 of 1998，the Ministry of Foreign Trade and Economic Cooperation，the State Administration for Industry and Commerce，and State Bureau of Internal Trade co-released the “Notice on the Relevant Issues concerning Foreign Investment Pyramid Sales Enterprises Change of Sale Modes” and regulated that foreign investment pyramid sales enterprises must transform to store operation，urging ten foreign investment direct sales enterprises to transform their operations.

Avon and Amway began to transform in 1999.But the difference is that they choose different transforming paths.Avon began to set up about 6000 counters and stores in Chinas tier-1，tier-2，and tier-3 cities，most of which were invested by its distributors.In contrast，Amway just symbolically set up about 110 counters，which were all invested by Amway.The nature of its operation modes did not change

Actually，their choices of transformation paths are closely related to their strategies and their respective core capabilities.Their choices of different modes are based on their core competences and inherent advantages.They both realized that the closer their transformation directions are to their core capabilities and inherent advantages，the lower the expense will be and the higher the possibilities of achieving successes.

Avon was founded by David McConnell in 1886 and was respected as the originator of direct sales.There are only two levels(SM-FD)in Avons system of direct selling.All its incomes are based on sales.Avon never used words like “up-line or down-line”.This system is totally different from the pyramid sales.Miss Avon only sells products but never persuade anybody to participate in alliances.SM is rather a small distributor in Avons original sales chain.The only difference is that there was no counter at that time.Therefore，Avons transformation is reasonable and logic.

Avons traditional mode is single level marketing.Selling products at fixed places has been invented and promoted by Avon Philippines in 1970s.Avon found that the mode invented by Avon Philippines has a good effect on covering new customers，recruiting and training sales representatives，providing services to the representatives and customers，and building the companys image.Therefore，Avon decided to transform to sell products through wholesaling and retailing.Avon applied and approved the new mode of “store plus salespersons” later，but this was just an alternative choice for Avon.Actually，Avon had transformed from a direct sales enterprise to a traditional manufacturer，which sells its products through wholesaling and retailing.In order to sell products，Avon set up counters in department stores，wholesale products to distributors and retailers，and set up stores of their own.

Amway has been famous for its pyramid sales mode all over the world.Sales are achieved within the multi-level network made up of sales representatives and customers.Amways core capabilities and inherent advantages determined that Amway would not set up too many counters and stores.Discarding pyramid sales，Amway wont be Amway any more.“Amway” stands for “the American Way”.Amway left too much imaginative space for Chinese customers when it entered China in 1995.After its transformation，Amway began to recruit salespersons through the stores.In early 2005，Amway decided to stop recruiting new salespersons and manage its 70000-plus salespersons according to their geographic locations so as to appear to be normative and effective.Actually，Amway has been retaining the essence of stimulation mechanisms of pyramid sales after its transformation，which is a key driving force for its rocket development after the transformation.

The way of implementing sales is the key to distinguish pyramid sales and traditional sales.Amway looks like other commodity manufacturers after setting up stores，but actually the stores are just extensions of its previous distribution center.Up till now，Amway only set up about 110 stores in China.Amway has repeatedly stressed that its salespersons should not sponsor sales training programs in the cities which have no Amway stores.Therefore，the stores are just symbols.They are just Amways storehouses and outlets.The real sales are achieved through person to person sales.

Amways advertisements are used to prove that it has transformed and is not a traditional pyramid sales enterprise any more.But actually，advertising is the basis of pyramid sales in China.When pyramid salespersons are confronted with customers challenges，they will reply with “it is impossible to cheat you because this product has been advertised by CCTV”.But all Amways advertisements are only limited to Nutrition that has brought huge sales and profits to the company.

Amway has left people a impression that it is good at political public relations.Because of its political public relation capability，Amway was not force to really change its operation mode.

4.2Who Suffer From Setbacks

SCENE 2AVON AND AMWAYS DEVELOPMENT SINCE 1998

In April of 1998，China Government released the “Notice on the Relevant Issues concerning Foreign Investment Pyramid Sales Enterprises Change of Sale Modes” and regulated that foreign investment pyramid sales enterprises must transform to store operation，urging ten foreign investment direct sales enterprises to transform their operations.About 7 years later，Avon had set up more than 6000 stores in China and nearly changed into a traditional cosmetics manufacturer.In the contrast，Amway just symbolically reacted to the change and set up about 110 stores.Amway goes on to apply its traditional operation mode.In 2005，Amways sale in China had exceeded one billion US.dollars.China has become Amways biggest market on the globe.Avons sale is four times of that before the change.But it is only 2.4 billion RMB and is less than one fourth of Amways

According to the description above，Amways sale is far better than Avons since their transformations in 1998.Our analysis provides several accounts that might explain the disequilibrium.

First of all，Avons transformation from direct selling to traditional stores caused twitches to Avons development.Avon had to take time to adapt to the sudden change.In the contrast，Amway just set up about 110 stores，which are just symbols of its transformation.Amways operation mode does not change in the nature.For Amway，it is just an investment in channels instead of twitches.Although Amways sale once fell to 10 million RMB in the r＼early stage of its transformation，that was just the temporary result of the release of the Notice.

As a sale method that has been existed in western countries for decades，pyramid sale do have its own merits.It is said that the newly issued “Regulation on Direct Selling Administration” also acknowledges this.Amway did not seek incomes from its salespersons.It was a honest enterprise.Since its transformation in 1998，it gained even more living space，since other pyramid sales enterprises were suffering from twitches raised by sudden transformation.

Secondly，most of Avons profits were taken away by its distributors since its transformation，since most of the stores were invested by the distributors.Amway invested all its stores.When Avon chose to transform to stores，its purpose was to occupy the national market.This could be testified by its rapid expanding speed.Avon wanted to set up stores in most of Chinas tier-1，tier-2，and tier-3 cities，it was impossible for itself to invest in all the stores.Avon had to cooperate with regional distributors.Avon could save money and time as well through cooperation with distributors.But Avon had to separate part of its profits to the distributors，or the distributors would not make investment.This is part of the reason why Avons sale was only one fourth of Amways.

In the contrast，Amways prices did not change after the transformation，since its operation mode was the same.A prerequisite for pyramid sales is high price，which include the profits of multilevel salespersons.The extra high price of Amway products had always been challenged by Chinese consumers.

In the end，Amways success of dodging policy makes those companies that really transformed look like victims.For example，Avon suffered a lot from its real transformation.Amway achieved fast development when Avon was suffering from twitches.

Based on the above analysis，we can find that both Avon and Amway have gains and pains during their first round of competition.Although Avons sale was only one fourth of Amways，its image as “a good boy” had been recognized.This was proved by the first license of pilot direct selling.Beside，its sale had been improved to four times of that before the transformation.Amway developed even faster and its sale had exceeded one billion US.dollar.But it has left an impression of “the bad boy”.

4.3Avons Conflicts with Its Distributors

SCENE 3CONFLICTS BETWEEN TRADITIONAL CHANNEL

AND MODERN CHANNELOn April 8 of 2005，Andrea Jung declared in Beijing that Avon had been approved by the Ministry of Commerce and the State Administration for Industry and Commerce to conduct pilot direct selling in Beijing，Tianjin，and Guangdong.On April 19，Avon announced its pilot plan in Guangzhou.Avon would recruit 3000 salespersons in Beijing，Tianjin，and Guangdong.The salespersons would carry out sales in the three places after being trained.The bonus that the salespersons would get would not exceed 25%of the sales.To guarantee customers benefits，Avon deposited 20 million RMB into an account specified by the Ministry of Commerce as warrants.

However，Avon had no time to applaud its victory since it encountered conflicts between traditional channel and modern channel in Guangzhou.The salespersons could provide products and service to consumers.This leads to pressures on the distributors.Several distributors gathered at Avons headquarters in Guangzhou and desired return of goods

Avon encountered conflicts with its distributors at very beginning of the second round of competition with Amway.We argue that the conflict is inevitable，because Avon didnt take into account the extent to which its decision and plan of the pilot direct selling are accepted and recognized by the distributors，and threactions the distributors would take.At the present，Avon had set up more than 6000 stores and 1700 counters，most of which are invested by its distributors.Avon once promised 34%to 40%profits when it persuaded the distributors to invest in setting up stores and counters.After implementing pilot direct selling，sales would skip the distributors and the salespersons could pick up goods directly from Avon.It was obvious that the stores would be stroked.

We argue that the conflict is inevitable out of the following reasons.

First of all，there exist a wide gap between the objectives of Avon and its distributors.Actually，Avons operation mode in China is not pure single level direct selling，but is more like traditional stores that wholesale and retail simultaneously，since it does not have salespersons team，nor does it have stimulation mechanisms for salespersons.Its main income comes from stores and counters.Avon and its distributors form a relative loosely connected super-organization，whose distinct feature is that the members maintain different and interdependent objective systems.Although both Avon and its distributors have contributed to improving efficiency and saving costs so as to achieving channel objectives，they have different claims and opinions with regard to how to achieve the whole channel objectives.For example，as the only enterprise that got the license for pilot direct selling，Avon surely wants to improve its market share in China and competitiveness through the pilot direct selling，so as to realize its long-term development strategies.However，the distributors treat the pilot direct selling as ominous sign，since pilot selling did not only reduce their sales，but also make their inventories a burden.

Of course，Avon wants to see co-existence of the salespersons and the distributors，providing superior service to Avons terminal consumers.But this seems to be Avons own wishful thinking.The channel conflicts caused by the differences in their objectives will test the marketing skills and channel governance capabilities of Avons top management.

Secondly，the benefits of the salespersons and the distributors are unbalanced.Different channel members play different roles.Each member has its own space and action range.Whats more，each member will try to strive for a decision area that is unique to itself.At the present，Avons income mainly comes from stores and counters，who are the main forces of providing services to customers and promoting Avons development.However，the pilot direct selling will have a great influence on the counters and stores.Since salespersons have the right to pick up products directly from Avon，direct selling can reduce indirect and direct costs.Therefore，they have the price advantages.Maybe in the near future，most of Avons income is gained by salespersons and the stores and counters would become Avons exhibition hall and after-service stations.The benefits of the salespersons and the distributors will be unbalanced.

Thirdly，there exist cognitive differences between Avon and its distributors.Avon believes that the advantage of direct selling lies in person to person sales，since salespersons can send products to consumers homes and offices.The distributors hold that their patrons will become salespersons if Avon implements direct selling，which will directly influence the incomes of their employees and lead to employee drainage.The stores are not pure stores any more after the implementation of direct selling，but outlets for Avons direct selling.This makes the distributors unable to afford the high costs of running the stores.The cognitive difference between Avon and its distributors is also one of the causes of the conflicts.

Finally，it is a result of the conflicts between multi-channels.At the present，consumers can buy appropriate Avon products from various channels，including counters，stores，internet stores，and informal channels such as gray channels and illegal stores.Of course，the stores and counters contribute the most to Avon before the implementation of pilot direct selling，so Avon is highly dependent on them.Avon relies on high profit to keep its distributors loyalty.Nevertheless，direct selling requires lots of salespersons to show its competitive advantages.In order to adapt to the rules of direct selling，Avon has to reduce its dependence on its distributors and pay attention to rear its salespersons.Since its transformation in 1998，Avons distributors have contributed a lot to its development in China.Avons implementation do direct selling will have a great impact on the stores performance.The multi-channel conflict between person to person sales and traditional stores is a twitch that Avon experienced during its transformation.

It is obvious that Avons decision and implementation of direct selling is not accepted and recognized by its distributors，leading to the conflict and hostile behaviors.Avon has to apply appropriate strategies and tactics to solve the problems.

5DISCUSSION AND STRATEGIC IMPLICATIONS5.1Discussions

Marketing channel has been considered as one of the sources of sustained competitive advantages.But few companies can really gain sustained advantages from market channel.In the long-range，the primary goal of a company is to survive and then develop.The competition becomes more and more intensive，so the importance of market channels increase.But in previous studies and practices，researchers and managers paid too much attention to the influences of channel governance decisions and behaviors on organizations performance and overlooked the influences of the extent to which those decisions and behaviors were accepted and recognized by other stakeholders on organizations efficiency.

5.2Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research

Our study is explorative.Some concepts are not described in detail and need further complementation and improvement.The institutional environment and the task environment may influence each other.But the influencing process might be very complicated，so we do not carry out a in-depth study.

5.3Strategic Implications

Our study suggests that it is important for managers to understand how institutional environment shapes channel structures and processes.Institutional environment(1)regulates，(2)validates and(3)gives meaning，to channel structures and processes.Although the influence of regulatory processes is clearly visible and discernible，problems may arise when managers deal with normative and cognitive institutions.By understanding how these institutions constrain and facilitate channel structures and processes，managers should be able to(1)better manage their channel within the confines of the institutional environment and(2)devise strategies to think and move beyond the confines of the institutional environment.

ENDNOTES

1.Scott，W.R.Institutions and Organizations［M］.Thousand Oaks CA：Sage,1995.

REFERENCES

［1］Achrol,Ravi Singh.Reve Torger and Louis W.Stern，The Environment of Marketing Channel Dyads：A Framework for Comparative Analysis［J］.Journal of Marketing，1983,47(4)，55-67.

［2］Daft Richard anizational Theory and Design［M］.11th ed..South-Western Publishing,2012.

［3］DiMaggio P.J.，and Powell，W.W.The Iron Cage Revisited：Institutional Isomorphism and Collective Rationality in Organizational Fields［J］.American Sociological Review，1983,48(2):147-160.

［4］Dutta，Shantanu，Mark Bergen，and George John.The Governance of Exclusive Territories When Dealers Can Bootleg［J］.Marketing Science，1994,13(winter):83-99.

［5］Dwyer F.Robert，Schurr，Paul H.and Oh，Sejo.Developing Buyer Seller Relations［J］.Journal of Marketing，1987,51(2):11-28.

［6］Frazier Gary anizing and Managing Channels of Distribution［J］.Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science，1999,27(2):226-240.

［7］Frazier Gary L.On the Measurement of Interfirm Power in Channels of Distribution［J］.Journal of Marketing Research，1983,20(5):158-166.

［8］Frazier Gary L.，and Antia，Kersi D.Exchange Relationships and Interfirm Power in Channels of Distribution［J］.Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science，1995,23(Fall):321-327.

［9］Frazier Gary L.and Rody，Raymond C.The Use of Influence Strategies in Inter-firm Relationships in Industrial Product Channels［J］.Journal of Marketing，1991,55(1):52-69.

［10］Frazier Gary L.and Sommers，John O.Perceptions of Power Use in Franchised Channels［J］.Journal of Marketing Research，1986,23(5):228-236.

［11］Frazier Gary L.，James D.Gill and Sudhir H.Kale.Dealer Dependence Levels and Reciprocal Actions in a Channel of Distribution in a Developing Country［J］.Journal of Marketing，1989,53(1):50-69.

［12］Grannovetter，Mark.Economic Action and Social Structure：The Problem of Embeddedness［J］.American Sociological Review，1985,91(11):481-510.

［13］Grewal，Rajdeep and Ravi Dharwadkar.The Role of the Institutional Environment in Marketing Channels［J］.Journal of Marketing，2002,66(7):82-97.

［14］Handelman，Jay M.and Stephen J.Arnold.The Role of Marketing Actions with a Social Dimension：Appeals to the Institutional Environment［J］.Journal of Marketing，1999,63(7):33-48.

［15］Heide，Jan B.Inter-organizational Governance in Marketing Channels［J］.Journal of Marketing，1994,58(1):71-85.

［16］Hutt，Michael D.，Michael D.Mokwa，and Stanley J.Shapiro.The Politics of Marketing：Analyzing the Parallel Political Marketplace［J］.Journal of Marketing，1986,50(1):40-51.

［17］Meyer J.W.，and Rowan，B.Institutionalized Organizations：Formal Structure as Myth and Ceremony［J］.American Journal of Sociology，1977,83(2):340-363.

［18］Oliver，Christine.Strategic Response to Institutional Processes［J］.Academy of Management Review，1991,16(1):145-179.

［19］Palay parative Institutional Economics：the Governance of Rail Freight Contracting［J］.Journal of Legal Studies，1984(13):265-288.

［20］Scott W.Richard.The Adolescence of Institutional Theory［J］.Administrative Science Quarterly，1987［J］.493-511.

第5篇

本規則是規定本公司業務處理方針及處理標準，其目的在于使業務得以圓滿進行。

營業計劃

(一)每年擇期舉行不定期的業務會計，并就目前的國際形勢、產業界趨勢、同行業市場情況、公司內部狀況等情況來檢查并修正目前的營業方針，方針確定后，傳達給所有相關人員。

其內容包括：

1.制品種類、項目;

2.價位;

3.選擇、決定接受訂貨的公司;

4.交貨日期及付款日期;

5.契約款品。

(二)有關未來的產品，應按下列要項作為評核：

1.生產、銷售產品必須是具有技術和成本上的優勢及不為競爭者所能擊敗的特色。

2.競爭者新產品的制造方式、設備等應取得專利權。

(三)產品種類及項目，應視行情的好壞，訂貨的繁易等條件，按下列各項進行評核：

1.停止多種類少數量的營業方針，并以盡量減少種類、增加單位數量為原則。

2.以接受訂貨為主，訂貨量需加上確實標準品的預估生產銷量。

3.所接受的訂貨數量很多時，除應自行生產外并應注意其他商品銷路。

(四)商品價格的定位須區分為目前獲利者與未來獲利者，并考慮較容易讓人接受的價位來決定產品的種類。

(五)在選擇、決定往來的訂貨公司時，須以下列為重點方針：

1.從未來的貿易、特別需要或重要的產業著手。

2.推展公家機關及地方公共機構的開拓。

(六)交貨及付款日期，則須恪守下列各項方針：

1.到期必須確實交貨。

2.收到訂單時，須要求正確的交貨日期，并且規定有計劃性的生產。

(七)在訂立契約時，要盡可能使契約款項能長期持續下去。

營業機構與業務分擔

(一)營業內容可分為內務與外務兩種，并依此決定各相關的負責人員。

1.內務：

(1)負責預估，接受訂貨及制作，呈辦相關的文案處理。

(2)記錄、計算銷售額及收入款項。

(3)處理收入款項。

(4)統計及制作營業日報。

(5)制作及寄送收款通知書。

(6)印制、寄送收據。

(7)發貨包裝及監督。

(8)與客戶進行電話及其他相關聯絡。

(9)搜集、整理產品及市場調查的相關資料。

(10)制作收發文書。

(11)進行廣告宣傳及制作、廣告媒體。

(12)計算招待、出差、事務管理及旅行費用。

(13)接待方面的事務。

2.外務：

(1)探尋及決定下批訂單的公司。

(2)對下批訂單后的狀況進行調查、探究及掌握。

(3)與客戶做估價、接受訂貨及延攬交易。

(4)接受訂貨后、負責檢查、交貨的各項聯絡、協調與通知。

(5)回復客戶的通知及詢問。

(6)做有關產品進廠及檢查的聯絡。

(7)開拓、介紹客戶。

(8)客戶的訪問、接待及交際。

(9)同業間的動向調查。

(10)新產品的研究、調查。

(11)制作客戶的問候函。

(12)請款、收款業務。

(二)外務工作通常會依據客戶別或商品別，分別由正、副二人負責工作。正負責人不在時，可由副負責人或其他相關人員代為執行職務。

(三)關于營業方面的開拓及接受訂貨，則由所有負責管理者及經理負責支援及進行接受訂貨的聯絡指導。

接受訂貨及運籌計劃

(一)對于客戶的資料應隨時加以適當分類、記錄下來。相關者或資料取得者也應隨時記入所得的資料。

1.把資料分類為對交易有重要性者及不重要者，并記入下列各評核事項：組織結構、負責人員、電話、場所、資產、負債、信用、業界的地位、交易情況、付款情況、交易系統、營業情況、使用場合、交貨情況、態度等。

2.除了以上的記錄之外，還須將報紙、雜志剪貼下來，分類整理。

(二)營業業務必須依工作部門別及機器別等分掌各項工程的現況及趨勢，努力使訂貨業務與此配合一致。

(三)調查各產業或各地區、各家公司的經營狀況，并以此來掌握有利的公司、事業、公家機構等，制定有效的推銷政策，并對此展開宣傳工作，以利開拓交易的進展。

(四)每月應針對預估及實際接受訂貨量，制成記錄表，并隨時與制造部門保持聯系。

1.客戶下個月預定訂貨量及本月份的實績。

2.各品項，各工作別的預定量及本月實績。

3.交貨、請款及收款的預定額及本月實績。

(五)為使生產及所接受的訂貨能夠容易估算，生產及庫存一定要先預估出固定的數量，在接受訂貨的同時也能做好交貨。

(六)如果客戶表示熱忱并有意舉行業務聯誼會，公司可借此機會收集情報并借此斡旋、開拓交易。

(七)必要時可設營業開發部門，以此支易的斡旋及開拓。

交易原則

(一)進行交易時，若有必要，須在交貨后不定期地訪問客戶負責人員，以利聽取他們對產品使用狀況意見，或可利用書信代詢。

(二)交貨日期原則上由營業部向工務科洽詢后決定，或由生產銷售檢查會議做出決定后通知訂貨的對方。

(三)交易應設法與對方訂立長期或持續性契約，價格方面則另由其他條項規定。

(四)所交出的貨品應務求完整、完美。超級秘書網

營業技術預估、接受訂貨、開拓

(一)預估成本是依據制造部門所預估的成本，并經由常務董事會議裁決，決定后提出給客戶。如果產品與過去相同，或曾提出估價單，也須就交貨日期及其他修正事項，取得廠長的認可。

(二)在進行預估時，通常需準備下列各項資料。

1.單價表;

2.工時表;

3.成本計算表;

4.一般行情價格表。

第6篇

關鍵詞：無形資產；營銷性無形資產；轉讓定價制度

中圖分類號：F810.42　文獻標識碼：A　文章編號：1672－3309(2012)01－105－02

一、無形資產的概念、種類與特點

對于無形資產，我們很難確定其準確的定義。國外有學者試圖給無形資產定義為在企業的有形財產之外可以為企業創造更多利潤的任何無形的財產。經合組織《轉讓定價指南》并沒有對無形資產進行定義，而是采取一一列舉的方式對無形資產的范圍加以說明。經合組織《轉讓定價指南》認為無形資產包括使用工業資產的權利，如專利、商標、商號、設計或模型，還包括文學和藝術財產權利以及知識產權(例如技術訣竅、商業秘密)。

我國《特別納稅調整實施辦法(試行)》第二章第10條第2款規定：“無形資產的轉讓和使用，包括土地使用權、版權(著作權)、專利、商標、客戶名單、營銷渠道、牌號、商業秘密和專有技術等特許權，以及工業品外觀設計或實用新型等工業產權的所有權轉讓和使用權的提供業務。”

由此可見，某些可以帶來巨大價值的無形資產并不一定反映在擁有該無形資產所有權的公司的資產負債表的賬面價值中。

二、營銷性無形資產的種類及價值的決定因素

營銷性無形資產包括有助于商業性開發的產品或勞務的商標、商號、客戶名單、分銷渠道和一些能提升產品價值的獨特的名字、符號或圖片。一些營銷性無形資產(例如商標)可能會受到國家的法律保護。并且僅在所有者許可的產品或服務上使用。營銷性無形資產的價值取決于許多因素，包括由商品和服務的質量所培育出的商號或商標的聲譽和信譽，而這些商品和服務是在過去的名稱或市場中使用的、質量控制的程度、正在進行的研發、正在銷售的商品或服務的分銷和可用性、為使潛在客戶熟悉商品和服務的促銷支出的程度以及是否取得成功(特別是為了發展經銷商、商或其它便利機構的支撐關系網絡的廣告和營銷支出)、營銷性無形資產進入市場的價值和法律規定的無形資產的權利性質等。

需要考慮的是，一項貿易或營銷性無形資產何時存在或者是否存在。例如。不是所有研發的支出都會形成有價值的貿易性無形資產，也并不是所有的營銷活動都會創造出營銷性無形資產。我們很難評價任何特定的支出形成企業資產的程度，并計算某一年該資產的經濟效果。

存在營銷活動不等于存在營銷性無形資產，認定營銷活動是否形成了重要的營銷性無形資產具有高度的事實依附性，即營銷活動應該成功通過該種營銷活動建立了可靠順暢的銷售渠道，有效縮短了流通時間：市場認知度因恰當的廣告宣傳(包括學術性或純商業性)而提高：消費者的認可度得以不斷提升從而增加二次消費率：在信賴度、價格、品牌形象等多方面超越同類產品等。

從會計的角度來講，記為當期費用的營銷費用不具有無形資產的性質，只能被認為是期間費用。以獲取將來收益為目的而資本化的支出會形成無形資產，隨著收益的實現而攤銷。從經濟學的角度來講，不論會計處理原則如何，即使是作為當期費用處理的營銷費用，只要是對無形資產的形成做出貢獻的支出。就應該反映經濟實際，確認為形成無形資產而發生的遞延費用。

三、我國營銷性無形資產轉讓定價制度現狀

現階段，我國法律并沒有對營銷性無形資產作出規定。我國法律中既沒有對無形資產進行分類，也沒有營銷性無形資產的概念。營銷性無形資產的概念只是反映于商標、品牌的規定中，而大部分這種規定又與專利等貿易性無形資產混為一談。隨著營銷性無形資產轉讓定價成為全球關注的焦點。我國也開始關注關聯企業通過其營銷行為創造的營銷性無形資產的價值和利潤歸屬。

我國一直以豐富的自然資源、廉價的勞動力和優惠的引進外資政策吸引外國跨國公司在華投資。跨國公司在中國的分公司、外國公司駐中國的常設機構創造了大量的營銷性無形資產。但由于我國營銷性無形資產轉讓定價制度的空白。大量由營銷性無形資產創造的利潤被歸入了境外的母公司，這嚴重損害了我國的稅收利益。這一做法忽視了中國市場的特殊因素對利潤產生的帶動作用，并且未對國內企業在市場開拓過程中的利潤貢獻予以適當確認。另外，我國一直鼓勵國內企業“走出去”。創造國際品牌，但缺乏國內法律對營銷性無形資產的保護，我國企業創造的營銷性無形資產的價值也會流失。所以，在法律中明確營銷性無形資產轉讓定價制度有著重大的意義。

四、營銷性無形資產轉讓定價制度的立法完善

營銷性無形資產作為無形資產的一種，它的轉讓定價方法與無形資產的轉讓定價方法是一致的。即在無形資產轉讓定價制度的框架下。我國營銷性無形資產轉讓定價制度的立法需要在以下幾個方面加以完善：

(一)在立法中引入營銷性無形資產的概念

我國現存的法律尚不存在營銷性無形資產的概念。《OECD轉讓定價指南》認為營銷性無形資產是商業性無形資產的一種，還特別與貿易性無形資產作了對比。我國稅務機關應借鑒《OECD轉讓定價指南》中的相關概念，在立法中將無形資產加以分類，并引入營銷性無形資產的概念。

(二)搜集關聯企業關于營銷性無形資產的有關信息

1、制定相關法律法規，鼓勵納稅人達成關聯企業內部關于各自所承擔的職能和風險的協議。

2、對于營銷性無形資產，制定相關法律法規，以明確關聯企業內部由營銷性無形資產所帶來的各自利潤歸屬。

(三)界定并記錄營銷性無形資產

在跨國企業內部，如果營銷性無形資產由我國納稅人所擁有，并且廣告營銷推廣費用確實增加了該營銷性無形資產的價值，那么該營銷性無形資產應為我國納稅人帶來超額的經營利潤。如果無形資產由跨國企業集團內的外國納稅人所有，但是市場營銷活動是由我國納稅人實行，則我國納稅人應被看作市場推廣活動而創造的營銷性無形資產的部分或全部的所有者。對企業的營銷性無形資產的分析與對經濟的分析密不可分。而準確、可靠的經濟分析主要源自于跨國企業內部雙方對營銷性無形資產的分銷協議或許可協議。如果某一個經濟實體需要對營銷性無形資產進行投資，那么預期的投資額度需要明確記錄下來。企業的內部定價政策應該充分反映出該企業的額外投資及假設的額外風險，并應該合理預期該無形資產可能帶來的利潤。納稅人可以通過經營范圍、經營場所、投資項目等記錄。在與關聯企業的協議中界定其運營的營銷性無資產。

(四)界定營銷行為的日常開支與非日常性開支

在企業日常經營活動中。對廣告推廣等營銷行為，應界定哪些開支屬于日常性開支，哪些開支屬于非日常性開支。以此來認定由營銷行為所創造出的營銷性無形資產，并確定營銷性無形資產所產生的利潤歸屬，并據以征稅。

第7篇

關鍵詞:知識經濟;知識營銷;營銷策略

中圖分類號:F71文獻標志碼:A文章編號:1673-291X(2010)19-0179-03

當前,世界已經步入知識經濟的時代,知識成為一國發展經濟的資本,知識的積累和創新成為促進經濟增長的主要動力源,企業的發展也從依靠資本積累轉向依賴知識的積累與更新。在知識經濟的背景下,知識營銷是知識經濟發展的必然要求,它強調產品和服務的網絡化、智能化和定制化,不僅在改變著人們的消費方式和消費觀念,而且還在改變著傳統的營銷方式和營銷法則。對于處于激烈市場競爭中企業來說,誰能運用好知識營銷,誰就能在市場競爭中爭取主動,從而獲得良好的經濟效益和社會效益。

一、知識營銷的定義和特點

所謂知識營銷,是指企業通過運用現代信息技術,向廣大消費者不斷傳播與企業產品有關的知識,并且通過知識創造需求,全面滿足消費者個性化的現實需要和潛在需要,以實現消費者滿意和企業長期發展的一種營銷方法。其本質是企業在營銷過程中注入知識含量與文化內蘊,幫助消費者增加產品知識,提高消費素質,從而達到推介產品、樹立形象、打造核心能力、提升品牌忠誠度、實現培育市場的目的。

知識營銷作為現代企業參與市場競爭的新營銷形式,主要具有以下特點:

1.知識營銷是學習營銷。知識營銷是企業圍繞著產品銷售,以知識學習為主要手段所展開的一系列營銷活動。主要包括以下幾個方面:首先,企業向消費者和社會宣傳自己的產品和服務,推廣普及新技術;其次,知識營銷不僅使消費者從直接的產品消費中實現一定的使用價值,而且還從企業那里學習到相關的知識文化;最后,知識營銷可以通過在互聯網上建立具有成本低廉、無存貨樣品、全天候服務和無區域界限等特點的虛擬商店和虛擬商業區進行廣告促銷和市場調查,在企業和消費者之間建立了一個交互式的信息交流系統,使企業與企業之間、企業與消費者之間可以相互學習,實現零距離溝通,為提升企業市場響應能力提供了保證。

2.知識營銷是綠色營銷。隨著人們消費的日益健康化、理性化,強調節約資源、防治污染、保護生態環境的知識營銷成為企業營銷的主要方式。企業在進行知識營銷時恪守綠色理念,堅持企業的一切生產經營活動都要以保護自然資源和生態環境為出發點,把經濟效益與社會環境、自然環境緊密結合起來,在滿足消費者需求的同時,減少環境污染,保護和節約資源,在生產過程中開發綠色產品,在銷售中實施綠色營銷組合策略。

3.知識營銷能夠統一消費者、企業和社會三者利益。知識營銷不僅為全社會帶來可觀的經濟效益,更從根本上提高了全社會的知識素質。從貝因美知識營銷的效果來看,既為企業帶來了巨大的經濟效益,又為消費者帶來了新的科學觀念,既滿足了消費者提高育嬰水平的要求,也為社會帶來了整體文明水平和知識素質的提升,使三者的利益達到了完美的統一。

4.知識營銷能夠開辟新市場。傳統的營銷只是去占領市場,在有限的市場中盡力擴大自己的市場份額,將市場看做靜止不變的,而知識營銷則是培育和創造市場、拓展市場,變有限市場為無限市場。它是以知識帶動需求,以滿足需求來創造市場,使具有創新精神的企業在市場競爭中處于主動地位。

二、貝因美知識營銷的內容

貝因美創于1992年,坐落于西子湖畔的杭州高新技術開發區內,是以嬰童業為主體、致力于嬰童行業的專業化集團公司,涉及嬰幼兒食品、用品生產、研發、銷售等多個相關經營領域。貝因美自主研發生產的貝因美系列嬰幼兒食品,涵蓋代乳品、斷奶期食品和輔助食品三大類,專為中國寶寶研制,共計200多個品種。產品以遵循國際安全保護法規為前提,關注孕婦和嬰兒兩代人的身心健康和智力提高,同時倡導綠色、環保、健康、安全的科學理念。十多年來,貝因美從產品的研發、生產、銷售到全方位的生、養、教服務,成功打造出“愛嬰工程”、“育嬰工程”和“親母工程”三大工程,在生育、養育、教育等多個層面為中國寶寶的健康成長提供服務。此外,貝因美借助現有的營銷網絡、渠道和品牌影響,突破原有產業格局,廣泛拓展服務領域,以特許連鎖加盟的業態模式介入整個孕嬰童用品、食品、服裝及玩具等行業,全方位發展嬰童業。貝因美正努力朝著中國孕嬰童產業的領跑者和綜合運營商的目標不斷邁進。

嬰幼兒食品在中國有著巨大的市場。嬰幼兒食品不同于一般的產品,它關系著國民素質的提高,關系著祖國的未來。由于嬰幼兒食品結構復雜,加上市場上產品眾多、功能各異,作為生產企業,無論從產品銷售的角度,還是從對消費者負責的角度,都存在消費引導問題。因此,貝因美決定走知識營銷路線。貝因美的知識營銷策略包括內部營銷知識與外部市場知識兩個方面。內部營銷知識,包括企業戰略、文化、資源等各方面的知識,是企業對營銷基本思想的確立和發展方向的構想,是對營銷觀念的創新,形成與企業長期的營銷實踐。外部市場知識是與企業存在聯系的客戶、競爭者等對企業營銷活動產生重要影響的各種外部因素所形成的綜合體,主要通過對消費者的需求和行為、競爭情況和競爭優勢的確立以及如何適應環境并發覺市場機會進行及時的總結、提煉形成的。立足于以上兩個方面,貝因美制定并成功實施了知識營銷戰略――通過愛嬰工程提升貝因美品牌形象,通過育嬰工程傳播育嬰知識,這不僅提高了對消費者責任感和滿意度,而且在消費者心目中樹立起可信賴的育嬰專家品牌形象和領導地位,以贏得競爭優勢。

(一)育嬰工程

育嬰工程主要通過向消費者傳播育嬰知識,其宗旨是通過持續的努力,傳播科學育兒知識,促進中國嬰幼兒全面健康成長。包含“生育、養育、教育”三個層面,主旨是倡導“優生、優育、優教”。主要內容包括系統開展科學育嬰咨詢活動,資助有關機構及研究人員深入開展促進嬰幼兒生長發育和健康的科學研究,資助、組織交流科學先進的育嬰知識、研究成果和經驗,向全社會傳播科學的育嬰知識。

1.在全國各地設立貝因美育嬰咨詢服務中心,以會員制形式向孕婦和養育3周歲以下嬰幼兒的年輕媽媽提供各類服務,通過全新的科學育嬰理念和方法,全方位幫助她們科學育嬰;聘請眾多著名兒科醫生、營養學家,開通北京、上海等地的12條育嬰免費咨詢電話,并開設800全國免費咨詢熱線免費為消費者提供服務。

2.倡導科學喂養,定期評選獎勵健康寶寶。這是貝因美傳播育嬰知識的一個全國性平臺,對中國兒童安全健康的成長起到了極大的推動作用;編著出版中國第一部育嬰專著――《育嬰指南》,包括嬰幼兒的營養、培養、更有貝因美專家講堂板塊,家長可以獲得權威育兒指導,輕松成為育兒專家;免費向全國新生兒家長發送《科學喂養手冊》,普及嬰兒科學喂養知識;獨家斥巨資創建以提供懷孕、早教、胎教、育兒等科學生養教資訊為主的中國育嬰網。中國育嬰網設有育兒論壇、育兒問答、寶寶博客等互動頻道,為寶寶生長之路提供充足的源動力。

3.加強對新生兒資料庫的管理運用,對消費者進行跟蹤調查。建立用戶數據庫,對用戶進行跟蹤服務,將科普宣傳與產品促銷緊緊融為一體。通過消費者意見反饋,改進產品和服務,使消費水準得以提高,價值得到提升。十幾年來,貝因美在上海、杭州的部分幼兒園設立早教班;各地分公司還組織早教隊伍,進入社區,對1~2歲的散居嬰幼兒開展早教指導活動,加強幼兒園與社區的聯系,幫助社區家長更好地進行優生優育、科學育兒,取得了良好的效果和反響。

(二)愛嬰工程

愛嬰工程是貝因美對有特殊困難的嬰幼兒家庭進行資助的一項更具針對性的公益活動,是貝因美企業文化內涵的延展和傳播。主要內容:對特殊困難的嬰幼兒家庭進行資助,如多胞胎、殘疾人家庭;向特殊新生兒提供人道主義援助,如棄嬰、孤兒等。設立全國性的愛嬰基金,讓更多需要幫助的嬰幼兒得到及時有效的援助。

1.成立貝因美多胞胎之家。1993年開始,貝因美向全國三胞胎以上家庭免費提供兩年營養米粉;1997年,貝因美成功策劃舉辦“情滿中華?全國四胞胎大團聚”活動,并于當年正式籌建成立全國首個“多胞胎之家”,設立多胞胎基金。目前已累計向300多家經濟有困難的多胞胎家庭提供近300多萬元的援助。

2.向全國各地各兒童福利院和其他特殊家庭捐助大量產品,至今價值近1 000多萬元。2007年,貝因美與中國兒童少年基金會聯手共同設立1 000萬元的“貝因美母嬰關愛基金”,旨在關愛弱勢群體,把愛心獻給最需要的人群。首批啟動的100萬元基金,針對農村0～2歲留守女童展開了援助。與此同時,從災區嬰童的長期需要考慮,貝因美還聯手中國兒童基金會啟動了為期六年、預算達1 200萬元的“四川地震嬰童公益扶養計劃”,向災區的孤兒、單親家庭及認養孤兒的家庭提供長期的全方位養教扶助。

3.倡導優生優育,開展產前檢查,提高人口素質。通過經濟、簡便和安全可靠的檢測方法,從孕婦群體中發現懷有某些先天缺陷異常胎兒的孕婦個體,進而采取措施以最大限度減少異常胎兒出生,從而提高整體人口素質。

貝因美緊緊圍繞育嬰工程和愛嬰工程,立足知識營銷組合策略,以最大限度創造消費者滿意和消費者、社會的長期利益,從而實現了貝因美自身的市場價值和知識社會價值。

三、貝因美知識營銷給我們的啟示

貝因美采用知識營銷策略,穩扎穩打,贏得天下。通過樹立“育嬰專家”的大旗,全面打造“育嬰工程”和“愛嬰工程”,不僅進一步提升了品牌價值、深化了企業文化內涵、員工的素養也進一步增強,更重要的是使貝因美通過知識營銷將育嬰咨詢緊密聯結婦幼保健、嬰幼兒食品和嬰幼兒用品,以最大限度地提高顧客滿意度,維護消費者、社會的長期利益,從而實現了貝因美自身的市場價值和社會價值。從貝因美知識營銷可以看出,知識營銷貫穿整個產品的生產過程,其實現需要企業的技術平臺、企業文化、員工素質、企業形象等支持,是考驗企業管理者管理能力、員工執行能力的營銷方式。

1.搭建完善的技術平臺。貝因美有著完善的信息化營銷服務平臺及包括客戶服務管理系統、電子商務系統、UFmobile系統、Call Center系統、專家知識系統、市場營銷管理系統、決策支持系統等在內的ERP系統,為員工進行知識交流、提高知識學習與共享能力提供技術支持提供了保證,如通過專家知識系統,員工可以獲取外部信息、截取情報資料、推動產品知識、宣傳企業形象;通過UFmobile,貝因美搭建了與客戶溝通的短信平臺,可以隨時提供服務、輔助銷售、留住客戶、提高效率、品牌整合與延續,并可以通過短信促銷、客戶關懷、新品上市通知、促銷信息、會員生日提醒等模式,將其幾十萬的客戶資料進行有效的管理,每天從短信平臺中就可以得到幾百條客戶需求線索,形成一個良好的宣傳渠道。

2.打造高素質營銷人員。知識營銷要求企業員工用知識去贏得消費者,而營銷隊伍的高素質是保證企業產品中的知識含量能被客戶感知和接受的條件,是知識營銷能否成功的基礎。高素質營銷人員需要有良好的知識獲取能力、知識整合能力、知識共享能力、知識創新能力,并通過各種能力的綜合,實現市場營銷的全過程知識管理。貝因美不定期開展各種知識營銷講座,在企業中創辦輔導班,開展企業文化拓展,對企業銷售人員進行知識培訓,使銷售人員充分了解企業知識與文化,努力增強銷售人員的責任心、主人心、學習心、自信心和合作心。幫助營銷人員做到不管發生什么問題對公司、客戶不抱怨,因為抱怨解決不了問題;指導營銷人員不滿足于自身目前的成績,因為滿足自己容易消磨意志;引導營銷人員如何具備良好的心理調節能力,不斷改變自己、戰勝自己以突破自身的發展瓶頸。由此,貝因美銷售人員不僅可以憑借豐富的專業知識、信得過的使用技能向消費者傳播產品中的知識與信息,引起消費者的認識和認同,從而促使消費者接受和購買企業的產品,同時,面對日趨個性化的產品需求,貝因美銷售人員可以自行通過研究消費者的消費心理、文化品位和價值觀念進行有針對性的促銷,以個性化、人性化的服務,去滿足消費者。

3.提升品牌價值。品牌價值的理性層面是以產品為基礎,帶給消費者的實際利益。當消費者從產品中獲得的利益與滿足感超過所支付的代價就會產生對該品牌理性層面的認同,這就是品牌核心價值的基礎。貝因美品牌從創立之初就有著良好的品牌內涵與健康的品牌架構。“育嬰專家”的品牌定位,準確地抓住了年輕父母的心態,極具權威性和親和力,旨在全面地關心、幫助嬰幼兒的健康成長。同時,貝因美產品在同類產品中品質較高,針對中國寶寶身體系統有更為專業和營養的育嬰方案,在產品的開發和創新上也居于領先。貝因美產品扎實的品質根基,成為進一步提升品牌的最為有利的基礎,在強化品牌認知的同時進一步拉升品牌,占領高端市場空間。這一獨特的品牌路線,不僅使貝因美從國內外奶粉品牌的雙面夾擊中走出來,把奶粉行業品牌混戰的局面巧妙地轉變成“中國嬰兒奶粉”與“西方嬰兒奶粉”兩大陣營;更令貝因美一躍成為“中國嬰兒奶粉”陣營中站在塔尖的品牌。由此,貝因美有效地規避了與競爭對手的直接對話,穩固了貝因美“育嬰專家”的地位,也使下一步與消費者的溝通成為可能,其品牌價值進一步得到提升。

4.深化企業文化內涵。企業文化建設以人為本,就是要通過環境熏陶、認知結構、管理規范、規章制度、行為培養等措施,使員工形成正確的價值評判和價值選擇,形成良好的心理和行為模式,推進企業的發展。貝因美努力推崇“以人為本、員工以事為本,價值認同、目標達成”的管理理念。從創業伊始,貝因美就在傳播著愛心和奉獻的企業文化,將“愛心”和“奉獻”這一觀念深化于每個員工心中,以愛為核心,倡導愛心事業、愛心企業(品牌、文化、產品)、愛心員工,深化“生命因愛而生,世界因愛而美”的品牌理念。“愛心”和“奉獻”作為貝因美的企業文化進一步深化,體現了貝因美的價值,也是貝因美的共識,這將會對貝因美每一個員工產生更深遠的影響。

參考文獻:

[1]李健.營銷新方式:知識營銷[J].企業文化與管理,2005,(4).

第8篇

不管是白酒企業還是飲料行業抑或是其他消費品企業，戰略和執行都是企業發展的兩極，相互聯系，密不可分。幾年前，有一本書《細節決定成敗》，作者以大量案例論述了“細節”在管理中的重要性；而后出現了《戰略決定成敗》等等很多“山寨”的版本，本人認為，對某一層面，戰略、細節、執行都可以決定成敗，差那一方面都不行，但僅僅有細節或者有戰略也不能通向成功。

戰略、戰術、執行都是不可偏廢的，也就是說，只有“系統”才能達成目標。

有人可能會說，戰略是大企業的事；戰略是高層的事情，至于營銷管理人員來說，大多情況做的是執行的事情，至于戰略可以不用過多考慮。此話對嗎？表面看起來很有道理，但細細想來卻也未必。

就拿一個區域市場舉個例子。一個區域經理要做好一個市場，需不需要戰略思維、需不需要策略和戰術，需不需要系統整合？難道坐等公司制定一切，然后依葫蘆畫瓢進行所謂的規劃或執行，之后市場就豁然開朗了嗎？當然不是了。一個區域市場的負責人肯定是區域的戰略和戰術的制定者，執行的第一負責人，責無旁貸。當然，這個區域的戰略和戰術是在公司的整體戰略和策略之下的，往往將兩者聯系得更緊密的區域管理人員，會如魚得水，大展拳腳。

所以說，只有在方向正確之下，執行力的提升才能更好的完成企業營銷目標，否則，執行力越強，離目標越遠。

成功人士喜歡講“故事”，將你帶進一個精心營造的“夢境”，殊不知，但有些成功是個體的，復制不了。那么，對于企業的營銷和一線企業營銷管理人員，他們需要什么？他們需要的是途徑和方法，即提升執行力和達成目標的方法。

要保證執行力，需要做好三方面的工作，其一，明確的目標；其二，完善的制度；其三，優異的團隊整體素質。

1、明確的目標。這里所說的目標不是戰略目標，基層員工和一線管理人員并不關心這些，他們接觸到的是階段性的目標，注意：階段性的目標。一個個小目標，如進店數量、鋪貨率、銷量完成、費用控制、促銷活動制定、執行、效果等等。

2、完善的制度。并不是僅僅是處罰措施，也要有獎勵、協助、指導、配合的制度。很多企業制度和表格很多，大家每天填表，成了“作家”，但實際上，很多表格是沒有用的，只能起到心理安慰作用，純粹是自欺欺人，表面文章。事情一來，大家相互推諉，不愿意承擔責任，能少做就少做。一些職能部門認為營銷就是吃喝玩樂：你們在外面舒服得很，還要這要那！回去報賬的時候，你會看到某些財務人員的那種形態，只可意會不可言傳啊。怪不得一個做銷售總監的朋友說：我會不定期將公司的一些后勤人員和行政人員拉去市場搞活動，讓他們體會一下銷售到底是怎么做的，錢是怎么賺回來的！